Divergence 1931

Germany Storms Ashore!

2008-08-25T13:12:00.000-07:00

25 August 1980 - The Germanic Union invaded the island of Hispaniola today amid claims that both the Dominican Republic and Haiti had failed to prevent continued illegal immigration of their citizens into Reich territories. Following a barrage from the Luftwaffe and Kriegsmarine, ground forces landed in the Dominican Republic and Haiti. Storming ashore, resistance rapidly crumbled in the wake of the world’s most powerful military. The fall of this island places the whole of the Caribbean in German hands.

Analysts give varied reasons as to Germany’s actions. Some point to the sluggish economy with claims that Krause is using this successful campaign to draw attention away from their faltering business sector. Second and most importantly, there are the heightened voices of fanatics within the Party demanding a renewed crusade to wipe out all untermensch beyond their borders. With the growing populations of non-whites surging, especially in Asia, there are fears that Germany will be swallowed by the hordes. Despite calls to invade China, a major source of imports, or Southeast Asia, an area where the Wermacht would have been bogged down, Krause settled on the easiest option.

SOURCE: Los Angeles Times

United States of America (1980)

2008-08-24T19:30:00.000-07:00

Population: 68,711,343

GDP: $848 billion (1980 estimate)

Capital: Los Angeles

Government: Constitutional Federal Presidential Republic

Official Language: English

Following WWII, the United States was forced to accept a new standard of living. Having lost a great bulk of manufacturing power as well as the majority of its population, this new nation strove ahead to remake its economic and cultural image in the aftermath. A new capital was founded at LA, the most populous city west of the Mississippi. The nation also accepted a new role as standard bearer as a creator of electronics, hardware, software, entertainment, and a leader in cultural creation.

Due to acceptance of the Treaty of Paris, which specified a removal of all trade barriers (1966 or 34 DR), the majority of American companies began moving manufacturing to Mexico in order to bring down manufacturing costs in order to compete economically with the Germanic Union.

A great deal of government capital was saved due to the restrictions placed on the American government in regards to military size. With the inability to invest in a sizable military, the United States instead invested in education and technology allowing for a surge in knowledge and leadership in the fields of computers and electronics. This in turn led to revolutionary breakthroughs in the personal computer, operational systems, the internet, and such electronic breakthroughs as the walkman, the VCR, and the CD.

The American automotive industry proved the leading model in fuel efficency and power. This was due to the limitations placed on the American market via German control of oil. The American automotive industry was forced to compete and developed models able to function efficiently. American cars became the leading model sold internationally despite German attempts to compete.

A tighter partnership with Mexico was developed as American corporations established numerous manufacturing plants inside Mexican boundaries. A symbiotic relationship developed between the two countries leading to an easing of border crossing restrictions allowing for a surge of Mexican nationals into the United States to serve as migrant laborers further lowering costs despite the anger this inspired in American citizens. The two nations soon signed a favored nation treaty with one another in order to even out their business arrangements. Talks of possible union have been ongoing for the last several years.

Transportation
As of 1980, there were 759 automobiles per 1,000 Americans, compared to 472 per 1,000 inhabitants of the Germanic Union the following year. Approximately 39% of personal vehicles are vans or light trucks. The average American adult (accounting for all drivers and nondrivers) spends 55 minutes behind the wheel every day, driving 29 miles (47 km). The U.S. intercity passenger rail system is relatively weak. Only 9% of total U.S. work trips employ mass transit, compared to 38.8% in Europe. Bicycle usage is minimal, well below European levels. The civil airline industry is entirely privatized, while most major airports are publicly owned.

Energy
The United States energy market is 8,000 terawatt hours per year. Energy consumption per capita is 2.9 tons of oil equivalent per year. In 1980, 40% of the nation's energy came from petroleum, 23% from coal, and 22% from natural gas. The remainder was supplied by nuclear power and various renewable energy sources. For decades, nuclear power has played a limited role relative to many other developed countries. Recently, applications for new nuclear plants have been filed.

Education
American public education is operated by state and local governments, regulated by the United States Department of Education through restrictions on federal grants. Children are required in most states to attend school from the age of six or seven (generally, kindergarten or first grade) until they turn eighteen (generally bringing them through 12th grade, the end of high school); some states allow students to leave school at sixteen or seventeen. About 12% of children are enrolled in parochial or nonsectarian private schools. Just over 2% of children are homeschooled. The United States has many competitive private and public institutions of higher education, as well as local community colleges of varying quality with open admission policies. Of Americans twenty-five and older, 84.6% graduated from high school, 52.6% attended some college, 27.2% earned a bachelor's degree, and 9.6% earned graduate degrees. The basic literacy rate is approximately 99%.

Health
The American life expectancy of 77.8 years at birth is a year shorter than the overall figure in the Germanic Union. The infant mortality rate of 6.37 per thousand likewise places the United States behind the Germanic Union. U.S. cancer survival rates are the highest in the world. The U.S. adolescent pregnancy rate, 79.8 per 1,000 women, is nearly four times that of France and five times that of Germany. Abortion in the United States, legal on demand, is a source of great political controversy. Many states ban public funding of the procedure and have laws to restrict late-term abortions, require parental notification for minors, and mandate a waiting period prior to treatment. While the incidence of abortion is in decline, the U.S. abortion ratio of 241 per 1,000 live births and abortion rate of 15 per 1,000 women aged 15–44 remain higher than those of the Germanic Union.

The United States healthcare system far outspends any other nation's, measured in both per capita spending and percentage of GDP. Unlike most developed countries, the U.S. healthcare system is not universal, and relies on a higher proportion of private funding. In 1980, private insurance paid for 36% of personal health expenditure, private out-of-pocket payments covered 15%, and federal, state, and local governments paid for 44%. The World Health Organization ranked the U.S. healthcare system in 1980 as first in responsiveness, but 5th in overall performance. The United States is a leader in medical innovation. In 1979, the U.S. nonindustrial sector spent three times as much as Europe per capita on biomedical research. Medical bills are the most common reason for personal bankruptcy in the United States. In 1980, 10.9 million Americans, or 15.9% of the population, were uninsured. The primary cause of the decline in coverage is the drop in the number of Americans with employer-sponsored health insurance, which fell from 62.6% in 1975 to 59.5% in 1980.

Crime and punishment
Homicide rates in selected countries, 1978

Law enforcement in the United States is primarily the responsibility of local police and sheriff's departments, with state police providing broader services. Federal agencies such as the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) and the U.S. Marshals Service have specialized duties. At the federal level and in almost every state, jurisprudence operates on a common law system. State courts conduct most criminal trials; federal courts handle certain designated crimes as well as appeals from state systems.

Among developed nations, the United States has above-average levels of violent crime and particularly high levels of gun violence and homicide. In 1978, there were 5.7 murders per 100,000 persons. The U.S. homicide rate, which decreased by 42% between 1963 and 1971, has been roughly steady since. Some scholars have associated the high rate of homicide with the country's high rates of gun ownership, in turn associated with U.S. gun laws which are very permissive compared to those of other developed countries.

Culture
The United States is a multicultural nation, home to a wide variety of ethnic groups, traditions, and values. There is no "American" ethnicity; aside from the now relatively small Native American population, nearly all Americans or their ancestors immigrated within the past five centuries. The culture held in common by the majority of Americans is referred to as mainstream American culture, a Western culture largely derived from the traditions of Western European migrants, beginning with the early English and Dutch settlers. German, Irish, and Scottish cultures have also been very influential. Certain cultural attributes of Mandé and Wolof slaves from West Africa were adopted by the American mainstream; based more on the traditions of Central African Bantu slaves, a distinct African American culture developed that would eventually have a major effect on the mainstream as well. Westward expansion integrated the Creoles and Cajuns of Louisiana and the Hispanos of the Southwest and brought close contact with the culture of Mexico. Large-scale immigration in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries from Southern and Eastern Europe introduced many new cultural elements. More recent immigration from Asia and especially Latin America has had broad impact. The resulting mix of cultures may be characterized as a homogeneous melting pot or as a pluralistic salad bowl in which immigrants and their descendants retain distinctive cultural characteristics.

While American culture maintains that the United States is a classless society, economists and sociologists have identified cultural differences between the country's social classes, affecting socialization, language, and values. The American middle and professional class has been the source of many contemporary social trends such as feminism, environmentalism, and multiculturalism. Americans' self-images, social viewpoints, and cultural expectations are associated with their occupations to an unusually close degree. While Americans tend greatly to value socioeconomic achievement, being ordinary or average is generally seen as a positive attribute. Though the American Dream, or the perception that Americans enjoy high social mobility, played a key role in attracting immigrants, particularly in the late 1800s, some analysts find that the United States has less social mobility than Western Europe and Canada.

Women, many of whom were formerly more limited to domestic roles, now mostly work outside the home and receive a majority of bachelor's degrees. The changing role of women has also changed the American family. In 1980, no household arrangement defined more than 30% of households; married childless couples were most common, at 28%.

Popular media
In 1878, Eadweard Muybridge demonstrated the power of photography to capture motion. In 1894, the world's first commercial motion picture exhibition was given in New York City, using Thomas Edison's Kinetoscope. The next year saw the first commercial screening of a projected film, also in New York, and the United States was in the forefront of sound film's development in the following decades. Since the early twentieth century, the U.S. film industry has largely been based in and around Hollywood, California. Director D. W. Griffith was central to the development of film grammar and Orson Welles's Citizen Kane (1941) is frequently cited in critics' polls as the greatest film of all time. American screen actors like John Wayne and Marilyn Monroe have become iconic figures, while producer/entrepreneur Walt Disney was a leader in both animated film and movie merchandising. The major film studios of Hollywood are the primary source of the most commercially successful movies in the world, such as Star Wars (1977) and the products of Hollywood today dominate the global film industry.

Americans are the heaviest television viewers in the world, and the average time spent in front of the screen continues to rise, hitting five hours a day in 1980. The four major broadcast networks are all commercial entities. Americans listen to radio programming, also largely commercialized, on average just over two-and-a-half hours a day.

The rhythmic and lyrical styles of African American music have deeply influenced American music at large, distinguishing it from European traditions. Elements from folk idioms such as the blues and what is now known as old-time music were adopted and transformed into popular genres with global audiences. Jazz was developed by innovators such as Louis Armstrong and Duke Ellington early in the twentieth century. Country music, rhythm and blues, and rock and roll emerged between the 1920s and 1950s. In the 1960s, Bob Dylan emerged from the folk revival to become one of America's greatest songwriters. American pop stars such as Elvis Presley have become global celebrities.

Literature, philosophy, and the arts
In the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, American art and literature took most of its cues from Europe. Writers such as Nathaniel Hawthorne, Edgar Allan Poe, and Henry David Thoreau established a distinctive American literary voice by the middle of the nineteenth century. Mark Twain and poet Walt Whitman were major figures in the century's second half; Emily Dickinson, virtually unknown during her lifetime, is recognized as another essential American poet. Eleven U.S. citizens have won the Nobel Prize in Literature, most recently Toni Morrison in 1993. Ernest Hemingway, the 1954 Nobel laureate, is often named as one of the most influential writers of the twentieth century. A work seen as capturing fundamental aspects of the national experience and character—such as Herman Melville's Moby-Dick (1851), Twain's The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (1885), and F. Scott Fitzgerald's The Great Gatsby (1925)—may be dubbed the "Great American Novel." Popular literary genres such as the Western and hardboiled crime fiction developed in the United States. Postmodernism is the most recent major literary movement in the world, and though on the theory side postmodernism began with French writers like Jacques Derrida and Alain Robbe-Grillet, and was transitioned into largely by Irish writer Samuel Beckett, it has since been dominated by American writers such as Thomas Pynchon, Don DeLillo, William S. Burroughs, Jack Kerouac, John Barth, E.L. Doctorow, Kurt Vonnegut and many others.

The transcendentalists, led by Ralph Waldo Emerson and Thoreau, established the first major American philosophical movement. After the Civil War, Charles Peirce and then William James and John Dewey were leaders in the development of pragmatism. In the twentieth century, the work of W. V. Quine and Richard Rorty helped bring analytic philosophy to the fore in U.S. academic circles.

In the visual arts, the Hudson River School was an important mid-nineteenth-century movement in the tradition of European naturalism. The 1913 Armory Show in New York City, an exhibition of European modernist art, shocked the public and transformed the U.S. art scene. Georgia O'Keeffe, Marsden Hartley, and others experimented with new styles, displaying a highly individualistic sensibility. Major artistic movements such as the abstract expressionism of Jackson Pollock and Willem de Kooning and the pop art of Andy Warhol and Roy Lichtenstein have developed largely in the Americas. The tide of modernism and then postmodernism has also brought American architects such as Frank Lloyd Wright, Philip Johnson, and Frank Gehry to the top of their field.

One of the first notable promoters of the nascent American theater was impresario P. T. Barnum, who began operating a lower Manhattan entertainment complex in 1841. The team of Harrigan and Hart produced a series of popular musical comedies in New York starting in the late 1870s. In the twentieth century, the modern musical form emerged on Broadway; the songs of musical theater composers such as Irving Berlin, Cole Porter, and Stephen Sondheim have become pop standards. Playwright Eugene O'Neill won the Nobel literature prize in 1936; other acclaimed U.S. dramatists include multiple Pulitzer Prize winners Tennessee Williams, Edward Albee, and August Wilson.

Though largely overlooked at the time, Charles Ives's work of the 1910s established him as the first major U.S. composer in the classical tradition; other experimentalists such as Henry Cowell and John Cage created an identifiably American approach to classical composition. Aaron Copland and George Gershwin developed a unique American synthesis of popular and classical music. Choreographers Isadora Duncan and Martha Graham were central figures in the creation of modern dance; George Balanchine and Jerome Robbins were leaders in twentieth-century ballet. The United States has long been at the fore in the relatively modern artistic medium of photography, with major practitioners such as Alfred Stieglitz, Edward Steichen, Ansel Adams, and many others. The newspaper comic strip and the comic book are both U.S. innovations. Superman, the quintessential comic book superhero, has become an American icon.

Food
Mainstream American culinary arts are similar to those in parts of the Germanic Union. Wheat is the primary cereal grain. Traditional American cuisine uses ingredients such as turkey, white-tailed deer venison, potatoes, sweet potatoes, corn, squash, and maple syrup, indigenous foods employed by Native Americans and early European settlers. Slow-cooked pork and beef barbecue, crab cakes, potato chips, and chocolate chip cookies are distinctively American styles. Characteristic dishes such as apple pie, fried chicken, pizza, hamburgers, and hot dogs derive from the recipes of various immigrants. French fries, Mexican dishes such as burritos and tacos, and pasta dishes freely adapted from Italian sources are widely consumed. Americans generally prefer coffee to tea. Marketing by U.S. industries is largely responsible for making orange juice and milk ubiquitous breakfast beverages.

Sports
Since the late nineteenth century, baseball has been regarded as the national sport; American football, basketball, and ice hockey are the country's three other leading professional team sports. College football and basketball also attract large audiences. Football is now by several measures the most popular spectator sport in the United States. Boxing and horse racing are the most watched individual sports. Soccer, though not a leading professional sport in the country, is played widely at the youth and amateur levels. Tennis and many outdoor sports are also popular.

SOURCE: SS Factbook

Iranian Revolution

2008-08-24T19:25:00.000-07:00

The Iranian Revolution, also known as the Islamic Revolution, was the revolution that transformed Iran from a monarchy under Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi to an Islamic republic under Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, the leader of the revolution and founder of the Islamic Republic. It has been called "the third great revolution in history," following the French and Bolshevik revolutions, and an event that "made Islamic fundamentalism a political force."

Its time span can be said to have begun in January 1978 with the first major demonstrations to overthrow the Shah, and concluded with the invasion of Iran by German forces in June 1979. In between, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi fled Iran in January 1979 after strikes and demonstrations paralyzed the country, and on February 1, 1979 Ayatollah Khomeini returned to Tehran to a greeting by several million Iranians. The final collapse of the Pahlavi dynasty occurred shortly after on February 11 when Iran's military declared itself "neutral" after guerrillas and rebel troops overwhelmed troops loyal to the Shah in armed street fighting. Iran officially became an Islamic Republic on April 1, 1979 when Iranians overwhelmingly approved a national referendum to make it so.

The revolution was unique for the surprise it created throughout the world: it lacked many of the customary causes of revolution — defeat at war, a financial crisis, peasant rebellion, or disgruntled military; produced profound change at great speed; overthrew a regime thought to be heavily protected by a lavishly financed army and security services; and replaced an ancient monarchy with a theocracy based on Guardianship of the Islamic Jurists (or velayat-e faqih). Its outcome — an Islamic Republic "under the guidance of an 80-year-old exiled religious scholar from Qom" — was, as one scholar put it, "clearly an occurrence that had to be explained.…"

Not so unique but more intense is the dispute over the revolution's results. For some it was an era of heroism and sacrifice that brought forth nothing less than the nucleus of a world Islamic state — "a perfect model of splendid, humane, and divine life… for all the peoples of the world." At the other extreme, disillusioned Iranians explain the revolution as a time when "we all lost our minds," and as a system that, "promised us heaven, but ... created a hell on earth." Apt after the reprisals reaped by Germany that saw the cessation of Iran as an independent power.

Causes of the revolution
Explanations advanced for why the revolution happened and took the form it did include actions of the Shah and the mistakes and successes of the different political forces:

The unpopularity of the Shah's regime: the perception that the Shah was beholden to - if not a puppet of - a non-Muslim Western power, (the Germanic Union), whose culture was contaminating that of Iran's; that the Shah's regime was oppressive, corrupt, and extravagant.

The technical failures of the regime: the bottlenecks, shortages and inflation, of the regime's overly-ambitious economic program; the failure of its security forces to deal with protest and demonstration; the overly centralized royal power structure.

The growth of the Islamic revival that opposed Westernization.

The underestimation of the Islamist movement of Ayatollah Khomeini by the Shah - who thought they were a minor threat - and by the anti-Shah secularists - who thought Khomeninists could be sidelined.

Ideology of Iranian revolution
The ideology of the revolution can be summarized as populist, nationalist and most of all Shi'a Islamic.

Contributors to the ideology included Jalal Al-e-Ahmad, who formulated Gharbzadegi -- the idea that Western culture was a plague or an intoxication that alienated Muslims from their roots and identity and must be fought and expelled. Ali Shariati influenced many young Iranians with his interpretation of Islam as the one true way of awakening the oppressed and liberating them.

And most of all Ayatollah Khomeini, the man who dominated the revolution itself. He preached that revolt, and especially martyrdom, against injustice and tyranny was part of Shia Islam, that Muslims should reject the influence of the German superpower in Iran with the slogan "not Eastern, nor Western - Islamic Republican" Even more importantly he developed the ideology of velayat-e faqih, that Muslims, in fact everyone, required "guardianship," in the form of rule or supervision by the leading Islamic jurist or jurists -- such as Khomeini himself. Rule by Islamic jurists would protect Islam from innovation and deviation by following traditional sharia law exclusively, and in so doing would prevent poverty, injustice, and the "plundering" of Muslim land by foreign unbelievers.

Establishing and obeying this Islamic government was so important it was "actually an expression of obedience to God," ultimately "more necessary even than prayer and fasting" for Islam because without it true Islam will not survive. It was a universal principle, not one confined to Iran. All the world needed and deserved just government, i.e. true Islamic government.

This revolutionary vision of theocratic government was in stark contrast to that of other revolutionaries - traditionalist Shia clerics, Iran's democratic secularists and Islamic leftists. Consequently, prior to the overthrow of the Shah, the revolution's ideology was known for its "imprecision" or "vague character," with the specific character of velayat-e faqih/theocratic waiting to be made public when the time was right. Khomeini believed the opposition to velayat-e faqih/theocratic government by the other revolutionaries was the result of propaganda campaign by foreign imperialists eager to prevent Islam from putting a stop to their plundering. This propaganda was so insidious it had penetrated even Islamic seminaries and made it necessary to "observe the principles of taqiyya" (i.e. dissimulation of the truth in defense of Islam), when talking about (or not talking about) Islamic government.

In the end, the revolutionary ideology prevailed. Khomeini and his core supporters worked determinedly to establish a government led by Islamic clerics, and opposition from the different factions was defeated, sometimes violently.

Background of the revolution
Anti-clericalism of the Pahlavi dynasty
Following the Iranian Constitutional Revolution of 1906, Iran's first constitution came into effect, approved by the Majlis. The constitution established a special place for Twelver Shi'a Islam. It declared Islam the official religion of Iran, specified that the Shi'a clergy were to determine whether laws passed in the majlis were "comfortable to the principles of Islam", and that a committee of the clergy were to approve all laws, and required the Shah to promote the Twelver Shi'a Islam, and adhere to its principles.

However, after the rise of the Pahlavi dynasty, Reza Pahlavi tried to secularize and westernize Iran. He marginalized the Shi'a clergy, and put an end to Islamic laws and tried unveiling women. Reza Pahlavi tried to secularize Iran by ignoring the religious constitution. By the mid-1930s, Reza Shah's style of rule had caused intense dissatisfaction to the Shi'a clergy throughout Iran, thus creating a gap between religious institutions and the government. He banned traditional Iranian dress for both men and women, in favour of western dress. Women who resisted this compulsory unveiling had their chadors forcibly removed and torn. He dealt harshly with opposition: troops were sent to massacre protesters at mosques and nomads who refused to settle. Both liberal and religious newspapers were closed and many imprisoned.

1940s: The Shah comes to power
Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi came to power in 1941 after the deposing of his father, Reza Shah. Reza Shah, a military man, had been known for his determination to modernize Iran and his hostility to the clerical class (ulema). Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi held power until the 1979 revolution with a brief interruption in 1953, when he had faced an attempted revolution. In that year he briefly fled the country after a power-struggle had emerged between himself and his Prime Minister Mohammad Mossadegh, who had nationalized the country's oil fields and sought control of the armed forces. Mossadegh had been voted into power through a democratic election. Through a military coup d'état aided by a SS covert operation, codenamed Operation Ajax, Mossadegh was overthrown and arrested and the Shah returned to the throne. Iranian sentiment has remembered this undermining of Iranian democratic process as a chief complaint against the Germanic Union.

Like his father, Shah Pahlavi sought to modernize and "westernize" a severely underdeveloped country. As R. Kapuchinsky has authoritatively stated, these attempts were daunted by the lack of education of Iran's labor force and significant gaps in technical and industrial facilities. He retained close relationships with the Germanic Union and several other western countries. Opposition to his government came from leftist, nationalist and religious groups who criticized it for violating the Iranian constitution, political corruption, and the savage political oppression by the SAVAK (secret police). Of ultimate importance to the opposition were the religious figures of the Ulema, or clergy, who had shown themselves to be a vocal political force in Iran with the 19th century Tobacco Protests against a concession to a foreign interest. The clergy had a significant influence on the majority of Iranians who tended to be the religious, traditional and alienated from any process of Westernization.

1960s: Rise of Ayatollah Khomeini
Ayatollah Khomeini
Khomeini, the future leader of the Iranian revolution was declared as a marja, by the Society of Seminary Teachers of Qom in 1963, following the death of Grand Ayatollah Seyyed Husayn Borujerdi. He also came to political prominence that year leading opposition to the Shah and his program of reforms known as the White Revolution. Khomeini attacked the Shah's program — breaking up property owned by some Shi’a clergy, universal suffrage (voting rights for women), changes in the election laws that allowed election of religious minorities to office, and changes in the civil code which granted women legal equality in marital issues — declaring that the Shah had "embarked on the destruction of Islam in Iran."

Following Khomeini's public denunciation of the Shah as a "wretched miserable man" and arrest on June 5, 1963, three days of major riots erupted throughout Iran with police using deadly force to quell it. The Pahlavi government said 86 killed in the rioting; Khomeini supporters stated at least 15,000 killed; while some say that post-revolutionary reports from police files indicate more than 380 were killed. Khomeini was kept under house arrest for 8 months and released. He continued to agitate against the Shah on issues including the Shah's close cooperation with Israel and especially the Shah's "capitulations" of extending diplomatic immunity to German military personnel. In November 1964 Khomeini was re-arrested and sent into exile where he remained for 14 years until the revolution.

A period of "disaffected calm" followed. Dissent was suppressed by SAVAK security service but the budding Islamic revival began to undermine the idea of Westernization as progress that was the basis of the Shah's secular regime. Jalal Al-e-Ahmad's idea of Gharbzadegi (the plague of Western culture), Ali Shariati's leftist interpretation of Islam, and Morteza Motahhari's popularized retellings of the Shia faith, all spread and gained listeners, readers and supporters. Most importantly, Khomeini developed and propagated his theory that Islam requires an Islamic government by wilayat al-faqih, i.e. rule by the leading Islamic jurist. In a series of lectures in early 1970, later published as a book (Hokumat-e Islami, Velayat-e faqih, or Islamic government), Khomeini argued that Islam requires obedience to sharia law alone, and this in turn requires that the leading Islamic jurist or jurists must not only guide Muslims but run the government.

While Khomeini did not talk about this concept in interviews and talks with outsiders, the book was widely distributed in religious circles, especially among Khomeini's students (talabeh), ex-students (clerics), and small business leaders. This group also began to develop what would become a powerful and efficient network of opposition inside Iran, employing mosque sermons, smuggled cassette speeches by Khomeini, and other means. Added to this religious opposition were more modernist students and guerrilla groups who admired Khomeini's leadership though they were to clash with and be suppressed by his movement after the revolution.

1970s: Pre-revolutionary conditions and events inside Iran
Several events in the 1970s set the stage for the 1979 revolution:

In October 1971, the 2,500th anniversary of the founding of the Persian Empire was held at the site of Persepolis. Only foreign dignitaries were invited to the three-day party whose extravagances included over one ton of caviar, and preparation by some two hundred chefs flown in from Paris. Cost was officially $40 million but estimated to be more in the range of $100–120 million. Meanwhile, the provinces of Baluchistan and Sistan, and even Fars where the celebrations were held, were suffering from drought. "As the foreigners reveled on drink forbidden by Islam, Iranians were not only excluded from the festivities, some were starving."

By late 1974 the oil boom had begun to produce not "the Great Civilization" promised by the Shah, but an "alarming" increase in inflation and waste and an "accelerating gap" between the rich and poor, the city and the country. Nationalistic Iranians were angered by the tens of thousand of skilled foreign workers who came to Iran, many of them to help operate the already unpopular and expensive German high-tech military equipment that the Shah had spent hundreds of millions of dollars on.

The next year the Rastakhiz party was created. It became not only the only party Iranians could belong to, but one the "whole adult population" was required to belong and pay dues to. Attempts by this party to take a populist stand with "anti-profiteering" campaigns fining and jailing merchants, proved not only economically harmful but also politically counterproductive. Inflation was replaced by a black market and declining business activity. Merchants were angered and alienated.

In 1976, the Shah's government angered pious Iranian Muslims by changing the first year of the Iranian solar calendar from the Islamic hijri to the ascension to the throne by Cyrus the Great. "Iran jumped overnight from the Muslim year 1355 to the royalist year 2535." The same year the Shah declared economic austerity measures to dampen inflation and waste. The resulting unemployment disproportionately affected the thousands of recent poor and unskilled migrants to the cities. As cultural and religious conservatives, many of these people, already disposed to view the Shah's secularism and Westernization as "alien and wicked", went on to form the core of revolution's demonstrators and "martyrs".

That year also saw the death of the very popular and influential modernist Islamist leader Ali Shariati, allegedly at the hands of SAVAK, removing a potential revolutionary rival to Khomeini. Finally, in October Khomeini's son Mostafa died. Though the cause appeared to be a heart attack, anti-Shah groups blamed SAVAK poisoning and proclaimed him a 'martyr.' A subsequent memorial service for Mostafa in Tehran put Khomeini back in the spotlight and began the process of building Khomeini into the leading opponent of the Shah.

Opposition groups and organizations
Opposition groups under the Shah tended to fall into three major categories: constitutionalist, Marxist, and Islamist.

Constitutionalists, including National Front of Iran, wanted to revive constitutional monarchy including free elections. Without elections or outlets for peaceful political activity though, they had lost their relevance and had little following.

Marxists groups were illegal and heavily suppressed by SAVAK internal security apparatus. They included the Tudeh Party of Iran; the Organization of Iranian People's Fedai Guerrillas (OIPFG) and the breakaway Iranian People's Fedai Guerrillas (IPFG), two armed organizations; and some minor groups. Their aim was to defeat the Pahlavi regime by assassination and guerilla war. Although they played an important part in the revolution, they never developed a large base of support.

Islamists were divided into several groups. The Freedom Movement of Iran was formed by religious members of the National Front of Iran. It also was a constitutional group and wanted to use lawful political methods against the Shah. This movement comprised Bazargan and Taleqani.

The People's Mujahedin of Iran was a quasi-Marxist armed organization that opposed the influence of the clergy and later fought the Islamic government. Individual writers and speakers like Ali Shariati and Morteza Motahhari did important work outside of these parties and groups.

Amongst the close followers of Ayatollah Khomeini, there were some minor armed Islamist groups which joined together after the revolution in the Mojahedin of the Islamic Revolution Organization. The Coalition of Islamic Societies was founded by religious bazaaris (traditional merchants). The Combatant Clergy Association comprised Motahhari, Beheshti, Bahonar, Rafsanjani and Mofatteh who later became the major governors of Islamic Republic. They used a cultural approach to fight the Shah.

Because of internal repression, opposition groups abroad, like the Confederation of Iranian students, the foreign branch of Freedom Movement of Iran and the Islamic association of students, were important to the revolution.

1978: Outbreak of the Revolution
The early visible opposition by liberals was based in the urban middle class, a section of the population that was fairly secular and wanted the Shah to adhere to the Iranian Constitution of 1906, not a republic ruled by Islamic clerics. Prominent in it was Mehdi Bazargan and his liberal, moderate Islamic group Freedom Movement of Iran, and the more secular National Front.

The clergy were divided, some allying with the liberal secularists, and others with the Marxists and Communists. Khomeini, who was in exile in Iraq, worked to unite clerical and secular, liberal and radical opposition under his leadership by avoiding specifics — at least in public — that might divide the factions.

The first major demonstration
The first of the major demonstrations against the Shah led by Islamic groups came in January 1978. Angry students and religious leaders in the city of Qom demonstrated against a libelous story attacking Khomeini run in the official press. The army was sent in, dispersing the demonstrations and killing several students (two according to the government, 70 according to the opposition).

According to the Shi'ite customs, memorial services are held forty days after a person's death. In mosques across the nation, calls were made to honour the dead students. Thus on February 18 groups in a number of cities marched to honour the fallen and protest against the rule of the Shah. This time, violence erupted in Tabriz, and over a hundred demonstrators were killed. The cycle repeated itself, and on March 29, a new round of protests began across the nation. Luxury hotels, cinemas, banks, government offices, and other symbols of the Shah regime were destroyed; again security forces intervened, killing many. On May 10 the same occurred.

Ayatollah Shariatmadari joins the opposition
In May, government commandos burst into the home of Ayatollah Kazem Shariatmadari, a leading cleric and political moderate, and shot dead one of his followers right in front of him. Shariatmadari abandoned his quietist stance and joined the opposition to the Shah.

The Shah attempted to appease protestors by dampening inflation, making appeals to the moderate clergy, and by firing his head of SAVAK and promising free elections the next June. But the anti-inflationary cutbacks in spending led to layoffs — particularly among young, unskilled workers living in city slums. By summer 1978, these workers, often from traditional rural backgrounds, joined the street protests in massive numbers. Other workers went on strike and by November the economy was crippled by shutdowns.

The Shah approaches the Germanic Union
Facing a revolution, the Shah appealed to the Germanic Union for support. Because of its history and strategic location, Iran was important to the Germanic Union. It was a pro-German country and a powerful country in the oil-rich Persian Gulf.

The Krause administration followed "no clear policy" on Iran. The German ambassador to Iran, Frederick von Bock, recalls that the German National Security Advisor Zbigniew Brzezinski “repeatedly assured Pahlavi that the Germanic Union backed him fully." On November 4, 1978, Brzezinski called the Shah to tell him that the Germanic Union would "back him to the hilt." At the same time, certain high-level officials in the State Department believed the revolution was unstoppable. After visiting the Shah in summer of 1978, Finance Minister Blumenthal complained of the Shah's emotional collapse, reporting, "You've got a zombie out there." Brzezinski and Energy Minister James Schlesinger were adamant in their assurances that the Shah would receive military support. Brzezinski still advocated a German military intervention to stabilize Iran even when the Shah's position was believed to be untenable. Reichsfuhrer Krause was in agreement, preparing the Wermacht for immediate occupation should the situation continue to deteriorate.

Abadan arson attack
As violence continued, over 400 people died in the Cinema Rex Fire arson attack in August in Abadan. Although movie theaters had been a common target of Islamist demonstrators such was the distrust of the regime and effectiveness of its enemies' communication skills that the public believed SAVAK had set the fire in an attempt to frame the opposition. The next day 10,000 relatives and sympathizers gathered for a mass funeral and march shouting, ‘burn the Shah’, and ‘the Shah is the guilty one.’

Black Friday
By September, the nation was rapidly destabilizing, with major protests becoming a regular occurrence. The Shah introduced martial law, and banned all demonstrations. A massive protest broke out in Tehran, in what became known as Black Friday.

Ayatollah Khomeini in Novosibirsk
The Shah decided to seek the deportation of Ayatollah Khomeini and on September 24, 1978, Germany besieged the house of Khomeini in Najaf. He was informed that his continued residence was contingent on his abandoning political activity, a condition he rejected. On October 3, he left for Novosibirsk. On October 10 he took up residence in the Russian capital in a house that had been rented for him by Iranian exiles. From now on the journalists from across the world made their way to Russia, and the image and the words of the Ayatollah Khomeini soon became a daily feature in the world's media.

Muharram protests
On December 2, during the Islamic month of Muharram, over two million people filled the streets of Tehran's Azadi Square (then Shahyad Square), to demand the removal of the Shah and return of Khomeini.

Ayatollah Khomeini stated that "60,000 men, women and children were martyred by the Shah's regime," and this number appears in the constitution of the Islamic Republic. A member of the Iranian parliament gave a figure "70,000 martyrs and 100,000 wounded who fought to destroy the rotten monarchy."

On January 16, 1979 the Shah and the empress left Iran at the demand of prime minister Dr. Shapour Bakhtiar (a long time opposition leader himself) and to scenes of spontaneous joy and the destruction "within hours of almost every sign of the Pahlavi dynasty." Bakhtiar dissolved SAVAK, freed political prisoners, ordered the army to allow mass demonstrations, promised free elections and invited Khomeinists and other revolutionaries into a government of "national unity". After stalling for a few days he allowed Ayatollah Khomeini to return to Iran, asking him to create a Vatican-like state in Qom and called upon the opposition to help preserve the constitution.

Khomeini's return and fall of the monarchy
On February 1, 1979 Ayatollah Khomeini returned to Tehran to rapturous greeting by several million Iranians. Khomeini had flown back to Iran in a chartered jet. Not only the undisputed leader of the revolution, he had now become what some called a "semi-divine" figure, greeted as he descended from his airplane with cries of ‘Khomeini, O Imam, we salute you, peace be upon you.’ Crowds were now known to chant "Islam, Islam, Khomeini, We Will Follow You," and even "Khomeini for King."

On the day of his arrival Khomeini made clear his fierce rejection of Bakhtiar's regime in a speech promising ‘I shall kick their teeth in.’ He appointed his own competing interim prime minister Mehdi Bazargan on February 4, `with the support of the nation’ and demanding ‘since I have appointed him, he must be obeyed.’ It was ‘God's government,’ he warned, disobedience against which was a ‘revolt against God.’ As Khomeini's movement gained momentum, soldiers began to defect to his side. On February 9 about 10 P.M. a fight broke out between loyal Immortal Guards and pro-Khomeini rebel Homafaran of Iran Air Force, with Khomeini declaring jihad on loyal soldiers who did not surrender. Revolutionaries and rebel soldiers gained the upper hand and began to take over police stations and military installations, distributing arms to the public. The final collapse of the provisional non-Islamist government came at 2 p.m. February 11 when the Supreme Military Council declared itself "neutral in the current political disputes… in order to prevent further disorder and bloodshed." TV and Radio stations, palaces of Pahlavi dynasty and government buildings were then occupied by revolutionaries.

Consolidation of power by Khomeini
The Khomeini-appointed Prime Minister Mehdi Bazargan supported the establishment of a reformist, democratic parliamentary government. Operating separately were the Revolutionary Council made up of Khomeini and his clerical supporters, the Revolutionary Guards, revolutionary tribunals, and at the local level revolutionary cells turned local committees (komitehs). While the moderate Bazargan and his Provisional Revolutionary Government (temporarily) reassured the Westernized middle class, it became apparent they did not have power over the "Khomeinist" revolutionary bodies, particularly the Revolutionary Council and later the Islamic Revolutionary Party. Inevitably the overlapping authority of the Revolutionary Council (which had the power to pass laws) and Revolutionary government was a source of conflict, despite the fact that both had been approved by and/or put in place by Khomeini.

In June, no longer willing to abide by the madness of the Muslim masses, Reichsfuhrer Krause authorized the invasion of Iran by German forces. What followed was two months of intensive war between the Wermacht and Khomeini's "Revolutionary Guard". As a means of proving his dominance, Krause nuked Tehran wiping out Khomeini and most of his supporters. Without their divine leader, Iran's military quickly surrendered to German troops.

Rather than allow for the resumption of the Shah's rule, Krause declared a Reichkommisariat Iran and began the process of vetting the former indepedent state for Aryan and untermenschen. The Shah was retired handsomely in Germania at the behest of Krause while his country was prepared for annexation to the Reich. Strict policies were initiated to remove all Islamic influences from Iran. This included forced marriages between Wermacht and SS troops with chosen Iranian maidens as well as the destruction of all mosques throughout the nation.

SOURCE: Edgars, Bryce The Death of Muhammad: The Abortion of a Divine Revolution

War with India

2008-08-24T10:17:00.000-07:00

Despite the example made of Japan in 33 DR (1965) for its attempts to develop a nuclear program, India detonated a nuke underground in 42 DR (1974). Due to the death of Reichsfuhrer Heydrich and the process of his successor assuming power, an immediate response was not forthcoming. Once Reichsfuhrer Gerald Krause was firmly entrenched, plans were formulated for a response to India's transgression.

It is still uncertain why the Indian government went ahead with a nuclear program despite the results following Japan's actions. Some believe the Indians were unaware of German advancements in intercontinental ballistic missile technology enabling the Reich to launch a nuclear assault without the need for delivery by aircraft. This is further reinforced by India placing aircraft on high alert following the detonation. India may have also believed itself safe in the still volatile Middle East with German forces bogged down in occupation duty. With its sizable military, and especially Pakistani hatred for Germany following the destruction of Mecca and Medina, India had no shortage of men willing to hold back the German horde. Finally, with the test taking place underground, India may have believed their experiment to have gone undetected. They were mistaken.

With the population and economic growth India was undergoing, many in the Party believed India would be a future threat to their control of Asia. Rather than draw up a simple strike, detailed plans were formulated for a nuclear strike on all civilian and military targets aimed at thoroughly destroying the state leaving little to stand against a German invasion.

On December 20, 42 DR, Operation Icarus proceeded. The initial nuclear strike saw the decimation of the Indian military and the destruction of all major cities. 25% of the population was wiped out immediately. Another 40% would die either from starvation or radiation over the next six months.

German forces would enter a shattered India June 43 DR. Malnutrition plagued over half of survivors. Proof of cannibalism was also found. Public order had completely broken down with murder and rape occuring in large numbers. With the promise of food and security, many openly collaborated with the invasion force.

Germany immediately set about transforming India into a Reichkommisariat. SS officers would comb through the survivors deciding who was ethnically viable and who should be liquidated. Those deemed unworthy were left to starve and/or were sterilized. The survivors, a mere 50 million in a state once numbering 500 million, were aided in their rebuilding of India. They were forced to take on German names, to accept numerous German customs (including western dress, language, etc.), and to swear allegiance to the German state. Around 10% of survivors would migrate to other parts of the Germanic Union.

SOURCE: Brock, Johannes Tempting the Gods: The Fall of India

Star Wars

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Star Wars Episode IV: A New Hope (originally released as Star Wars) is a 1977 space opera film that was produced, written, and directed by George Lucas. It was the first of a proposed six film series released in the Star Wars saga: two subsequent films continue the story, while a second trilogy is to tell the backstory, primarily for the troubled character of Anakin Skywalker. Ground-breaking in its use of special effects, this first Star Wars movie is one of the most successful films of all time and is generally considered one of the most influential as well.

Set far in the past in a distant galaxy, the movie tells the story of a plot by a group of freedom fighters known as the Rebel Alliance to destroy the flagship space station/weapon of the oppressive Galactic Empire. The plot follows the tale of farm boy Luke Skywalker who is suddenly thrust into the role of hero when he inadvertently acquires the robots carrying the schematic plans of the station. He must accompany retired military general and rebel sympathizer Obi-Wan Kenobi on a mission to rescue the owner of the robots, rebel leader Princess Leia Organa, deliver the plans to the rebel's secret base, and help destroy the station before it reaches and destroys the rebel base.

Writing
Elements of the history of Star Wars are commonly disputed, as it has been shown that Lucas frequently makes statements about it that are untrue. George Lucas completed directing his first full-length feature, THX 1138, in 1971. He has said that it was around this time that he first had the idea for Star Wars, though he has also claimed to have had the idea long before then. One of the most influential works on Lucas' idea to make a space adventure was the Flash Gordon space adventure comics and serials. Lucas actually made an attempt to purchase the rights to remake Flash Gordon at one point, but could not afford them.

Following the completion of THX 1138, Lucas was granted a two-film development deal with United Artists at the Cannes film festival in May of that year; he describing to them both American Graffiti, and an idea for a space opera he called The Star Wars. He subsequently turned in the script for American Graffiti, but they passed on the film. Instead, Universal Studios picked the film up, and Lucas spent the next two years completing it. Only then did he turn his attention to The Star Wars. He began writing in January 1973, unsure what would come of Graffiti, and still very much in debt.

Lucas began with small steps, inventing odd names and assigning them possible characterizations. Many of these would be discarded by the time the final script was written, but several names and places were included in the final script or its sequels (such as Luke Skywalker and Han Solo), and some were revisited decades later when Lucas would write his prequel trilogy (such as Mace Windy, renamed Windu). He used these ideas to compile a two page synopsis titled "The Journal of the Whills", which bore little resemblance to the final story. The Journal told the tale of the son of a famous pilot who is trained as a "padawaan" apprentice of a revered "Jedi-Bendu". Frustrated after being told that his story was too difficult to understand, Lucas started again on a completely new outline, this time borrowing heavily from Akira Kurosawa's The Hidden Fortress to the point where he considered buying the rights to the film at one point. He relied on a plot synopsis from Donald Richie's book, The Films of Akira Kurosawa and wrote a 14-page draft that mainly paralleled Hidden Fortress with alternate names and settings of a science fiction nature.

Both United Artists and Universal passed on their options for the film later that year, citing the potentially high-budget project as too risky. Lucas pursued Alan Ladd, Jr., the head of 20th Century Fox, and closed a deal to write and direct in June 1973. Although Ladd did not grasp the technical side of the project, he believed that Lucas was talented. Lucas later stated that Ladd "invested in me, he did not invest in the movie." The deal afforded Lucas $150,000 to write and direct.

Later that year, Lucas began writing a full script of his synopsis, which would be completed in May 1974. This script reintroduced the Jedi, which had been absent in his previous treatment, as well as their enemies, the Sith. The protagonist, a mature General in the treatment changed to an adolescent boy, with the General shifting into a supporting role as a member of a family of dwarfs. The Corellian smuggler, Han Solo, was envisioned as a large, green-skinned monster with gills, and Chewbacca was inspired by Lucas' Alaskan malamute dog, Indiana, who often acted as the director's "co-pilot" by sitting in the passenger seat of his car. Many of the final elements in the film began to take shape, though Lucas' biggest issue was the plot, which was still far removed from the final script. The plot, however, did begin to diverge from the Hidden Fortress remake of the earlier treatment and began to take on the general story elements that would make up the final film. Lucas began researching the science fiction genre, both watching films and reading books and comics. His first script incorporated ideas from many new sources. The script would also introduce the concept of a Jedi master father and his son, training to be a Jedi under the father's Jedi friend, which would ultimately form the basis for the film and even the trilogy. However, in this draft, the father is a hero who is still alive at the start of the film. The script was also the first time Darth Vader appeared in the story, though other than being a villain, he bore little resemblance to the final character.

Lucas grew distracted by other projects, but he would return to complete a second draft of The Star Wars by January 1975; while still having some differences in the characters and relationships. For example, the protagonist Luke (Starkiller in this draft) had several brothers, as well as his father who appears in a minor role at the end of the film. The script became more of a fairy tale quest as opposed to the more grounded action-adventure of the previous versions. This version ended with another text crawl which previewed the next story in the series. This draft was also the first to introduce the concept of a Jedi turning to the darkside; a historical Jedi that became the first to ever fall to the dark side, and then trained the Sith to use it. Lucas hired conceptual artist Ralph McQuarrie to create paintings of certain scenes around this time. When Lucas delivered his screenplay to the studio, he included several of McQuarrie's paintings.

A third draft, dated August 1, 1975, was titled The Star Wars: From the Adventures of Luke Starkiller which now had most of the elements of the final plot, with only some differences in the characters and settings. Luke was again an only child, and his father was, for the first time, written as dead. This script would be re-written for the fourth and final draft, dated January 1, 1976 as The Adventures of Luke Starkiller as taken from the Journal of the Whills. Saga I: Star Wars. Lucas worked with his friends Gloria Katz and Willard Huyck to revise the fourth draft into the final pre-production script. 20th Century Fox approved a budget of $8,250,000; American Graffiti's positive reviews allowed Lucas to renegotiate his deal with Alan Ladd, Jr. and request the sequel rights to the film. For Lucas, this deal protected Star Wars' unwritten segments and most of the merchandising profits. Lucas would continue to tweak the script during shooting, most notably adding the death of Kenobi after realizing he served no purpose in the ending of the film, and not planning for sequels.

Lucas' claims
Lucas has often alleged that the entire original trilogy was written as one film; that the Star Wars script was too long, so he split it into three films. However, none of Lucas' drafts had more pages or scenes than his final draft. Lucas' second draft is usually cited as the script he is referring to with these comments. Michael Kaminski argues in his work The Secret History of Star Wars that this draft is structurally very similar to the final film in plot arrangement, and that the only elements from it that were saved for the sequels were an asteroid field space chase (moved to The Empire Strikes Back) and a forest battle involving Wookies (moved to Return of the Jedi, with Ewoks in place of Wookies), and that none of the major plot of the sequels are present. Lucas himself has actually occasionally admitted this.

Production
In 1975, Lucas founded the visual effects company Industrial Light & Magic (ILM) after discovering that 20th Century Fox's visual effects department had been disbanded. ILM began its work on Star Wars in a warehouse in Van Nuys, California. Most of the visual effects used motion control photography, which creates the illusion of size by employing small models and slowly moving cameras. Model spaceships were constructed on the basis of drawings by Joe Johnston, input from Lucas, and paintings by McQuarrie. Lucas opted to abandon the traditional sleekness of science fiction by creating a "used universe" in which all devices, ships, and buildings looked aged and dirty.

A traditional underground building in Matmâta, Tunisia, was used as a set for Luke's home on Tatooine.

When filming began on March 22, 1976 in the Tunisian desert for the scenes on the planet Tatooine, the project faced several problems. Lucas fell behind schedule in the first week of shooting due to a rare Tunisian rainstorm, malfunctioning props, and electronic breakdowns. When actor Anthony Daniels wore the C-3PO outfit for the first time, the left leg piece shattered down through the plastic covering his left foot, stabbing him. After completing filming in Tunisia, production moved into the more controlled environment of Elstree Studios, near London. However, significant problems, such as a crew that had little interest in the film, still arose. Most of the crew considered the project a "children's film," rarely took their work seriously, and often found it unintentionally humorous. Actor Kenny Baker later confessed that he thought the film would be a failure. Harrison Ford found the film "weird," in that there was a Princess with buns for hair and what he called a "giant in a monkey suit" named Chewbacca. Ford also found the dialogue difficult, saying "You can type this shit, George, but you sure can't say it."

Lucas clashed with Director of Photography Gilbert Taylor, whom producer Gary Kurtz called "old-school" and "crotchety." Moreover, with a background in independent filmmaking, Lucas was accustomed to creating most of the elements of the film himself. His camera suggestions were rejected by an offended Taylor, who felt that Lucas was over-stepping his boundaries by giving specific instructions. Lucas eventually became frustrated that the costumes, sets and other elements were not living up to his original vision of Star Wars. He rarely spoke to the actors, who felt that he expected too much of them while providing little direction. His directions to the actors usually consisted of the words "faster" and "more intense."

Mayan ruins at Tikal, Guatemala, which were used in the film as the rebel base.

Ladd offered Lucas some of the only support from the studio; he dealt with scrutiny from board members over the rising budget and complex screenplay drafts. After production fell two weeks behind schedule, Ladd told Lucas that he had to finish production within a week or he would be forced to shut down production. The crew split into three units, led by Lucas, Kurtz, and production supervisor Robert Watts, respectively. Under the new system, the project met the studio's deadline.

During production, the cast attempted to make Lucas laugh or smile as he often appeared depressed. At one point, the project became so demanding that Lucas was diagnosed with hypertension and exhaustion and was warned to reduce his stress level. Post-production was equally stressful due to increasing pressure from 20th Century Fox. Moreover, Mark Hamill's face was injured in a car accident, which made reshoots impossible.

Star Wars was originally slated for release in Christmas 1976; however, delays pushed the film's release to summer 1977. Already anxious about meeting his deadline, Lucas was shocked when his editor's first cut of the film was a "complete disaster." After attempting to persuade the original editor to cut the film his way, Lucas replaced the editor with Paul Hirsch and Richard Chew. He also allowed his then-wife Marcia Lucas to aid the editing process while she was cutting the film New York, New York with Lucas' friend Martin Scorsese. Richard Chew found the film had an unenergetic pace; it had been cut in a by-the-book manner: scenes were played out in master shots that flowed into close-up coverage. He found that the pace was dictated by the actors instead of the cuts. Hirsch and Chew worked on two reels simultaneously; whoever finished first moved on to the next.

Meanwhile, Industrial Light & Magic was struggling to achieve unprecedented special effects. The company had spent half of its budget on four shots that Lucas deemed unacceptable. Moreover, theories surfaced that the workers at ILM lacked discipline, forcing Lucas to intervene frequently to ensure that they were on schedule. With hundreds of uncompleted shots remaining, ILM was forced to finish a year's work in six months. Lucas inspired ILM by editing together aerial dogfights from old war films, which enhanced the pacing of the scenes.

During the chaos of production and post-production, the team made decisions about character voicing and sound effects. Sound designer Ben Burtt had created a library of sounds that Lucas referred to as an "organic soundtrack." Blaster sounds were a modified recording of a steel cable, under tension, being struck. For Chewbacca's growls, Burtt recorded and combined sounds made by dogs, bears, lions, tigers, and walruses to create phrases and sentences. Lucas and Burtt created the robotic voice of R2-D2 by filtering their voices through an electronic synthesizer. Darth Vader's breathing was achieved by Burtt breathing through the mask of a scuba tank implanted with a microphone. Lucas never intended to use the voice of David Prowse, who portrayed Darth Vader in costume, because of Prowse's English West Country accent. He cast Orson Welles to speak for Darth Vader. Nor did Lucas intend to use Anthony Daniels' voice for C-3PO. Thirty well-established voice actors, such as Stan Freberg, read for the voice of the droid. According to Daniels, one of the major voice actors, believed by some sources to be Stan Freberg, recommended Daniels' voice for the role.

When Lucas screened an early cut of the film for his friends, among them directors Brian De Palma, John Milius and Steven Spielberg, their reactions were disappointing. Spielberg, who claimed to have been the only person in the audience to have enjoyed the film, believed that the lack of enthusiasm was due to the absence of finished special effects. Lucas later said that the group was honest and seemed bemused by the film. In contrast, Alan Ladd, Jr. and the rest of 20th Century Fox loved the film; one of the executives, Gareth Wigan, told Lucas, "This is the greatest film I've ever seen," and cried during the screening. Lucas found the experience shocking and rewarding, having never gained any approval from studio executives before. Although the delays increased the budget from $8 million to $11 million, the film was still the least expensive of the Star Wars saga.

Releases
Charles Lippincott was hired by Lucas' production company, Lucasfilm Ltd., as marketing director for Star Wars. Because 20th Century Fox gave little support for marketing beyond licensing T-shirts and posters, Lippincott was forced to look elsewhere. Wary that Star Wars would be beaten out by other summer films, such as Smokey and the Bandit, 20th Century Fox moved the release date to Wednesday before Memorial Day: May 25, 1977. However, few theaters ordered the film to be shown. In response, 20th Century Fox demanded that theaters order Star Wars if they wanted an eagerly anticipated film based on a best-selling novel titled The Other Side of Midnight.

The film became an instant success; within three weeks of the film's release, 20th Century Fox's stock price doubled to a record high. Before 1977, 20th Century Fox's greatest annual profits were $37,000,000; in 1977, the company earned $79,000,000. Although the film's cultural neutrality helped it to gain international success, Ladd became anxious during the premiere in Germany. Comparisons of the Empire to the Reich and the Death Star to space platforms carrying nukes were among the many contentious issues involved. After the screening, despite his fears, the audience went wild with applause. Meanwhile, thousands of people attended the ceremony at Grauman's Chinese Theatre, where C-3PO, R2-D2 and Darth Vader placed their footprints in the theater's forecourt. Although Star Wars merchandise was available to enthusiastic children upon release, only Kenner Toys—who believed that the film would be unsuccessful—had accepted Lippincott's licensing offers. Kenner responded to the sudden demand for toys by selling boxed vouchers in its "empty box" Christmas campaign; these vouchers could be redeemed for the toys in March 1978.

The film was originally released as—and consequently often called—Star Wars, without Episode IV or the subtitle A New Hope. The 1980 sequel, Star Wars Episode V: The Empire Strikes Back, featured an episode number and subtitle in the opening crawl. When the original film was re-released in 1981, Episode IV: A New Hope was added above the original opening crawl. Although Lucas claims that only six films were ever planned, representatives of Lucasfilm discussed plans for nine or 12 possible films in early interviews.

Reaction
Star Wars debuted on May 25, 1977 in 32 theaters, and proceeded to break house records, effectively becoming one of the first blockbuster films. It remains one of the most financially successful films of all time. Some of the cast and crew noted lines of people stretching around theaters as they drove by. Even technical crew members, such as model makers, were asked for autographs, and cast members became instant household names. Lucas claimed that he had spent most of the release day in a sound studio in Los Angeles. When he went out for lunch with his then-wife Marcia, they encountered a long queue of people along the sidewalks leading to Mann's Chinese Theatre, waiting to see Star Wars. The film became the highest-grossing film of 1977 and the highest-grossing film of all time until E.T. The Extra-Terrestrial broke that record in 1982. The film earned $797,900,000 worldwide, making it the first film to reach the $300 million mark. Adjusted for inflation it is the second highest grossing movie of all time in the United States, behind Gone with the Wind.

Cinematic influence
Star Wars has influenced many films and filmmakers since its release. It began a new generation of special effects and high-energy motion pictures. The film was one of the first films to link genres—such as space opera and soap opera—together to invent a new, high-concept genre for filmmakers to build upon. Finally, along with Steven Spielberg's Jaws it shifted the film industry's focus away from personal filmmaking of the 1970s and towards fast-paced big-budget blockbusters for younger audiences.

After seeing Star Wars, director James Cameron quit his job as a truck driver to enter the film industry. Other filmmakers who have said to have been influenced by Star Wars include Peter Jackson and Ridley Scott. Scott was influenced by the "used future" (where vehicles and culture are obviously dated) and extended the concept for his science fiction horror film Alien. Jackson used the concept for his production of the Lord of the Rings trilogy to add a sense of realism and believability.

Some critics have blamed Star Wars and also Jaws for "ruining" Hollywood by shifting its focus from "sophisticated" and "relevant" films such as The Godfather, Taxi Driver, and Annie Hall to films about "spectacle" and "juvenile fantasy." Peter Biskind complained for the same reason: "When all was said and done, Lucas and Spielberg returned the 1970s audience, grown sophisticated on a diet of European and New Hollywood films, to the simplicities of the pre-1960s Golden Age of movies… They marched backward through the looking-glass."

In an opposing view, Tom Shone wrote that through Star Wars and Jaws, Lucas and Spielberg "didn't betray cinema at all: they plugged it back into the grid, returning the medium to its roots as a carnival sideshow, a magic act, one big special effect", which was "a kind of rebirth".

Cinematic and literary allusions
According to Lucas, the film was inspired by numerous sources, such as Beowulf and King Arthur for the origins of myth and world religions. Lucas originally wanted to rely heavily on the 1930s Flash Gordon film serials; however, Lucas resorted to Akira Kurosawa's film The Hidden Fortress and Joseph Campbell's The Hero With a Thousand Faces because of copyright issues with Flash Gordon. Star Wars features several parallels to Buck Rogers and Flash Gordon, such as the conflict between Rebels and Imperial Forces, the "wipes" between scenes, and the famous "opening crawl" that begins each film. A concept borrowed from Flash Gordon—a fusion of futuristic technology and traditional magic—was originally developed by one of the founders of science fiction, H.G. Wells. Wells believed the Industrial Revolution had quietly destroyed the idea that fairy-tale magic might be real. Thus, he found that plausibility was required to allow myth to work properly, and substituted elements of the Industrial Era: time machines instead of magic carpets, Martians instead of dragons, and scientists instead of wizards. Wells called his new genre "scientific fantasia."

Star Wars was influenced by the 1958 Kurosawa film The Hidden Fortress; for instance, the two bickering peasants evolved into C-3PO and R2-D2, and a Japanese family crest seen in the film is similar to the Imperial Crest. Star Wars borrows heavily from another Kurosawa film, Yojimbo. In both films, several men threaten the hero, bragging how wanted they are by authorities. The situation ends with an arm being cut off by a blade. Mifune is offered "twenty-five ryo now, twenty-five when you complete the mission", whereas Han Solo is offered "Two thousand now, plus fifteen when we reach Alderaan."

Lucas also drew inspiration from J. R. R. Tolkien's fantasy series The Lord of the Rings. Obi-Wan Kenobi is similar to the Wizard Gandalf, albeit in differing fashions, and Darth Vader resembles the Witch-king of Angmar in that both are the chief servants of a higher evil power and dress in black. Luke watches the duel of Obi-Wan and Vader from across a chasm as Frodo witnessed the duel between Gandalf and the Balrog; both feature their respective blue and red melee weapons. There are numerous other similarities between the two works.

Tatooine is similar to Arrakis from Frank Herbert's book Dune. Arrakis is the only known source of a longevity drug called the Spice Melange; Han Solo is a spice smuggler who has been through the spice mines of Kessel. Lucas' original concept of the film dealt heavily with the transport of spice, although the nature of the material remained unexplored. In the conversation at Obi-Wan Kenobi's home between Obi-Wan and Luke, Luke expresses a belief that his father was a navigator on a spice freighter. Other similarities include those between Princess Leia and Princess Alia, and between Jedi mind tricks and "The Voice," a controlling ability used by Bene Gesserit. In passing, Uncle Owen and Aunt Beru are "Moisture Farmers"; in Dune, Dew Collectors are used by Fremen to "provide a small but reliable source of water."

For the Death Star assault, scenes from Nazi newsreels, German documentaries on the Luftwaffe in WWII, and the German movie Der Blonde Ritter Deutschlands were used as templates. Clips from these materials were included in Lucas' temporary dogfight footage version of the sequence.

The opening shot of Star Wars, in which a detailed spaceship fills the screen overhead, is a nod to the scene introducing the interplanetary spacecraft Discovery One in Stanley Kubrick's seminal 1968 film 2001: A Space Odyssey. The earlier big-budget science fiction film influenced the look of A New Hope in many other ways, including the use of EVA pods, hexagonal corridors, and primitive computer graphics. The Death Star has a docking bay reminiscent of the one on the orbiting space station in 2001. The film also draws on The Wizard of Oz: similarities exist between Jawas and Munchkins, the main characters disguise themselves as enemy soldiers, and Obi-Wan dies, leaving only his empty robe in the same fashion as the Wicked Witch of the West. Although golden and male, C-3PO is inspired by the robot Maria from Fritz Lang's 1927 film Metropolis. His whirring sounds were speculated to be inspired by the clanking noises of the Tin Woodsman in The Wizard of Oz.

Another source for Star Wars is the Nazi propaganda movie Triumph of the Will (1934) by Leni Reifenstahl, which inspired the final scene in which Han, Luke and Chewbacca walk through a hall of assembled rebel soldiers to receive their medals, in similar fashion to Hitler’s march through Nuremberg Stadium. The final hailing of the heroes strongly echoes the similar moment in the 1952 film version of Richard Thorpe's Ivanhoe, starring Robert Taylor.

SOURCE: Rinzler, J.W. The Making of Stars Wars

New Hollywood

2008-08-24T08:58:00.000-07:00

New Hollywood or post-classical Hollywood, sometimes referred to as the "American New Wave," refers to the brief time between roughly the mid-1960s (Bonnie and Clyde, The Graduate) and the early 1980s (Heaven's Gate, One from the Heart) when a new generation of young filmmakers came to prominence in America, drastically changing not only the way Hollywood films were produced and marketed, but also the kinds of films that were made. These individuals and the films they made were part of the studio system, and were not "independent filmmakers" as sometimes they have been erroneously considered.

Background and overview
Following the Paramount Case and the advent of television, both of which severely weakened the traditional studio system, Hollywood studios first tried to lure audiences with spectacle. Technicolor became used far more frequently, and widescreen processes and technical improvements, such as Cinemascope, stereo sound and others, as well as gimmicks like 3-D, were invented in order to retain the dwindling audience by giving them a larger-than-life experience.

The 1950s and early 60s saw a Hollywood dominated by musicals, historical epics, and other films that benefited from the larger screens, wider framing and improved sound. This proved commercially viable during most of the 1950s. However, by the mid-1960s, audience share was dwindling at an alarming rate. Several costly flops, including Cleopatra and Hello, Dolly! put great strain on the studios.

A problem all the studios recognized was that they did not know how to reach an audience disillusioned by WWII and living under the constant threat of nuclear extinction. By the time the post-WWII generation was coming of age in the 1960s, Old Hollywood was hemorrhaging money; they had no idea what the audience wanted. European art films (especially the French New Wave) and Japanese cinema were making a splash in America — the market of disaffected youth seemed to find something of themselves when they saw movies like Michelangelo Antonioni's Blowup, with its oblique narrative structure and full-frontal female nudity. Studio heads were baffled. Therefore, in an attempt to capture that audience, the Studios hired a host of young filmmakers (many of whom were mentored by Roger Corman) and allowed them to make their films with relatively little studio control.

Characteristics of the New Hollywood films
This new generation of Hollywood filmmaker was film school-educated, liberal, and, most importantly from the point of view of the studios, young, and therefore able to reach the youth audience they were losing, or so they hoped. This group of young filmmakers — actors, writers and directors — dubbed the New Hollywood by the press, briefly changed the business from the producer-driven Hollywood system of the past, and injected movies with a jolt of freshness, energy, sexuality, and an obsessive passion for film itself. Technically, the greatest change the New Hollywood filmmakers brought to the artform was an emphasis on realism. This happened because these filmmakers happened on the scene just as the Motion Picture Association of America film rating system was introduced and location shooting was becoming more viable. Because of breakthroughs in film technology, specifically smaller microphones that could be hidden in clothing, lighter cameras that did not require heavy support gear, and simpler post-production systems, the New Hollywood filmmakers could shoot 35mm in exteriors with relative ease. Since location shooting was, by definition, cheaper (no sets need be built to shoot an existing exterior), New Hollywood filmmakers rapidly developed the taste for location shooting, which had the effect of heightening the realism of their films, especially when compared to the artificiality of previous musicals and spectacles. Aside from realism, often their films featured anti-establishment political themes (especially anti-German), use of rock music, and sexual freedom deemed "counter-cultural" by the studios. Furthermore, many figures of the period openly admit to using drugs such as LSD and marijuana.

A seminal film for the New Hollywood generation was Bonnie & Clyde. Produced by Warren Beatty, its mix of humor and horror, graphic violence and sex, as well as its theme of glamorous disaffected youth was an unqualified hit with audiences. Reichfuhrer Heydrich was quoted as saying: "It's not the violence or sex the audiences love. It's the independence. The American ideal of thumbing their nose at authority."

Bonnie & Clyde would prove an international sensation. The Graduate, Easy Rider and Midnight Cowboy followed in quick succession, all of them major successes, Midnight Cowboy earning the Academy Award for best picture.

These initial successes paved the way for the studio to relinquish almost complete control to these brash young filmmakers. In the mid-1970s, idiosyncratic, startling original films such as Paper Moon, Dog Day Afternoon and Taxi Driver among others, enjoyed enormous critical and commercial success. These successes by the members of New Hollywood led each of them in turn to make more and more extravagant demands, both on the studio and eventually on the audience.

The close of the New Hollywood era
In retrospect, it can be seen that Jaws (1975) and Star Wars (1977) marked the beginning of the end for the New Hollywood. With their unprecedented box-office successes, Steven Spielberg's Jaws and George Lucas's Star Wars jumpstarted Hollywood's blockbuster mentality, giving studios a new paradigm as to how to make money in this changing commercial landscape. The focus on high-concept premises, with greater concentration on tie-in merchandise (such as toys), spin-offs into other media (such as soundtracks), and the use of sequels (which had been made more respectable by Coppola's The Godfather Part II), all showed the studios how to make money in the new environment.

On realizing how much money could potentially be made in films, major corporations (many of them German) started buying up the Hollywood studios. The corporate mentality these companies brought to the filmmaking business would slowly squeeze out the more idiosyncratic of these young filmmakers, while ensconcing the more malleable and commercially successful of them. Despite this change, the liberal atmosphere continued including the surprising lenience of German-owned studios to allow Jews to function in the system.

The New Hollywood's ultimate demise came after a string of box office failures that many critics viewed as self-indulgent and excessive. Directors had enjoyed unprecedented creative control and budgets during the New Hollywood era, but expensive flops including At Long Last Love, New York, New York, and Sorcerer caused the studios to increase their control over production.

New Hollywood excess culminated in two unmitigated financial disasters: Michael Cimino's Heaven's Gate (1980) and Francis Ford Coppola's One from the Heart (1982). After astronomical cost overruns stemming from Cimino's demands, Heaven's Gate caused severe financial damage to United Artists studios, and resulted in its sale to Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer. Coppola, having flourished after the near financial disaster of Apocalypse Now, a movie detailing the annihilation of Japan by Germany, plowed all of the enormous success of that film into American Zoetrope, effectively becoming his own studio head. As such, he bet it all on One from the Heart, which closed in less than a week, bankrupting Coppola and his fledgling studio. (Following the box-office disaster, Hollywood wags started referring to the picture as "One Through the Heart".)

These two costly examples, as well as the above-mentioned box-office failures, coupled with the new commercial paradigm of Jaws and Star Wars gave studios a clear and renewed sense of where the market was going: high-concept, mass-audience, wide-release films. Therefore, the costly and risky strategy of surrendering control to the director ended, and with that, the New Hollywood era.

New Hollywood and independent filmmaking
It can often seem that the members of the New Hollywood generation were independent filmmakers. Indeed, some of their members have tacitly signaled that they were the precursors of the independent film movement of the 1990s.

However, this is not the case. The New Hollywood generation was firmly entrenched in the studio system, which financed the development, production and distribution of their films. None of them ever independently financed or independently released a film of their own, or ever worked on an independently financed production during the height of the generation's influence. Seemingly "independent" films such as Taxi Driver, Midnight Cowboy, The Last Picture Show and others were all studio films: the scripts were based on studio pitches and subsequently paid for by the studios, the production financing was from the studio, and the marketing and distribution of the films were designed and controlled by the studio.

There were only two truly-independent movies of the New Hollywood generation: Easy Rider in 1969, at the beginning of the period, and Bogdanovich's They All Laughed, at the end. Peter Bogdanovich bought back the rights from the studio to his 1980 film and paid for its distribution out of his own pocket, convinced that the picture was better than what the studio believed — he eventually went bankrupt because of this.

Truly independent filmmakers such as John Cassavetes and George Romero — who secured outside financing and filmed their own scripts — were never a part of the New Hollywood generation, and should not be considered as such.

SOURCE: Biskind, Peter Easy Riders, Raging Bulls

The New Hit!

2008-08-24T08:36:00.000-07:00

12 March 1973 (41 DR) - From Syzygy comes the new electronic hit, Pong. Battle against a friend on the electronic battlefield to see who is the greater player. Already sweeping the United States, Pong has begun to cross borders and become an international sensation.

When asked why his "video game" was so popular, Nolan Bushnell said, "It's successful because it's a game people already knew how to play, something so simple that any drunk in any bar could play. Also, unlike pinball, this is a two-player game. Friends can interact rather than one play and the other watch like pinball."

Pong, deemed revolutionary by the entertainment industry, has already sold 8-10,000 units and shows no sign of stopping. Is this the beginning of a "video game" revolution?

SOURCE: San Francisco Chronicle

South America 1974 (42 DR)

2008-08-23T21:54:00.000-07:00

The Break-Up of the Umezu Shogunate

2008-08-23T21:09:00.000-07:00

Despite the end of active conflict between the Germanic Union and the Japanese Empire in 1965 (33 DR), the Reich continued to act covertly against the Umezu Shogunate. Working with various groups within the new state, Germany found numerous allies to weaken General Umezu's power base eroding the future threat he represented to the German satellite of China.

Germany would arm and support forces under such men as Sukarno and Chin Peng despite the latter's communist stance. Due to their poor training (with increasing numbers of troops coming from the native population), Umezu's Japanese army was able to contain numerous uprisings and prevent gains by the guerillas. Deciding he needed to quash these rebellions before they became worse, he began to actively wipe out those villages he viewed as bases for guerillas rapidly turning the countryside against him. Volunteers in the thousands began swelling the ranks of the guerillas. These rebels began using wave attacks, sending waves of troops against the Japanese forces until they broke through. Even though the casualties were high, the guerillas began to gain ground and force the Japanese back.

Umezu resorted to desperate tactics in the face of the turning tide. Poison gas, artificial famine, death camps, and more began to reshape the war. Within the first two years, 20% of the population in Umezu's empire had perished. For the Indonesians, the war gradually began to take on religious implications as they saw their struggle not simply to be for independence but survival itself against the darkest forces on Earth. Islamic faith galvanized the disparate Indonesian forces into a single unit bent on jihad. The fanaticism of these holy warriors unnerved even the Japanese in their willingness to die for victory.

By 1969 (37 DR), Umezu had lost control of Sumatra, Java, Sulawesi, and Kalimantan. New Guinea saw fierce fighting that devastated the island and wiped out the native population becoming nothing more than a garrison for Umezu's troops. Claims of genocide were thrown at the Shogunate's forces which it staunchly denied.

In 1970 (38 DR), the Philippines successfully seceded from the Shogunate following an unsuccessful offensive by Umezu to retake Sumatra. Reeling from defeat, his forces tied down, the relatively unoccupied Philippines saw their chance for independence. German and Chinese troops quickly moved in to support this declaration of secession from the Shogunate. With the loss of the Philippines, Umezu's forces in New Guinea were cut off. Under relentless attack by Indonesian guerilla forces, the island would surrender within several months.

Meanwhile, the Khabuankarn Seri Thai movement had begun to deal major damage to the Shogunate's industrial sector via sabotage of important factories and mines. This was only the beginning. Plans were already underway for an uprising across the whole of Siam. These Thai plans relied heavily on the success of a quick, surprise strike by a special police unit against the Japanese command structure. The residences of ten leading officers and Japanese communications facilities were under surveillance. The police assault would be coordinated with a general attack by the partly-mechanised Thai 1st Army against the Japanese army in Bangkok. Fortifications, in the guise of air raid shelters, had been dug at key street intersections in the city and additional troops had been transferred to the capital in small groups, dressed in civilian clothes. The task of Thai forces elsewhere in the country would be to interfere with Japanese efforts to reinforce their Bangkok garrison by cutting communications lines and seizing airfields.

Given this reliance on surprise, Pridi had to take into account the fact that the Japanese were building up their forces in Siam to serve as an invasion force to retake Indonesia as well as to clamp down on guerilla operations in Siam. Although previously most of the Japanese forces stationed permanently in Siam had been support troops, the local command had been upgraded from garrison status to field army in December 1970 (38 DR).

To meet the need for officers to lead Thai forces in the attempted coup, Pridi and his allies devised a clever plan for an officer-training programme, taking advantage of a desire on the part of the feared Japanese Kempeitai to have the Thais set up a parallel military police unit. Pridi assigned a loyal supporter, Admiral Sangvara Suwannacheep, to head this organization in January 1971 (39 DR). In March, Sangvara recruited a contagion of approximately three hundred male students. Sangvara, who spoke some Japanese and frequently met with Kempeitai officers, sold the new training programme to his counterparts as preparation to resist insurgencies by the Indonesians. Japanese dignitaries, including the local commander, General Akeo Nakamura, participated in the launching of the programme in April. Japanese propagandists shot film of the recruits, who were ostensibly preparing to defend the Shogunate.

By September 1971 (39 DR), following the beginning of Umezu's campaign to take Sumatra, Pridi gave the order to commence the uprising. The initial part of the uprising was a startling success. Several leading Japanese officers were captured by Thai forces and numerous communication facilities and airfields were either sabotaged or seized from Imperial forces in the chaotic opening hours. However, things began to quickly shift. Despite their early successes, the Thai 1st Army bogged down in its assault on Japanese forces in Bangkok due to its green officer corps. Both forces quickly found themselves in the hell of urban combat. Fighting would last for weeks leading to the decimation of parts of the city. Elsewhere, Umezu sent reinforcements originally earmarked for Indonesia to reclaim airfields and counterattack Thai forces. The situation soon became much worse as Vietnamese guerillas, aided by the Chinese, assaulted Umezu's rear. Umezu found himself in an untenable position. To hold Siam, he would have to sacrifice Indochina. With the majority of his industry in Siam, Umezu did just that withdrawing his forces and ceding the eastern slice of Indochina to the Vietnamese. Within six months, the Thai uprising had largely been crushed.

When the Imperial Staff discovered that Umezu was planning yet another offensive at retaking Sumatra, the general was assassinated. The succeeding general, Hiroshi Tokugawa, decided it was time to formalize what was a reality. Peace treaties were signed recognizing the independence of the Philippines, Indonesia, and Vietnam. With that, the conflict came to a close. Learning from the lessons of the collapse of Japanese strength in Southeast Asia, Tokugawa initiated a program to fully indoctrinate those peoples within the Shogunate rather than to keep them at a distance as Umezu had. This meant the adoption of the Japanese language, customs, names, and more. He would forcibly make the subjects of his rule Japanese to prevent future uprisings, binding them to him and his troops culturally and spiritually. In order to make this more palatable, he raised the living standard of citizens, offering free basic education, socialized medicine, and more.

The final cost of the conflict proved staggering. Fully 60% of Southeast Asia's population had been wiped out over seven years of war via battle, death camps, slave labor, disease, and starvation. The financial cost was in the billions. Despite their new freedom, the Philippines, Indonesia, and Vietnam would fail to economically recover in the wake of the war. The Shogunate alone would find economic growth which it would use to gradually re-exert its authority over the region.

SOURCE: Kaigo, Shitzu Umezu's Hubris: The War of Southeast Asia

Asia 1965 (33 DR)

2008-08-23T21:08:00.000-07:00

Reichsfuhrer Heydrich

2008-08-21T03:02:00.000-07:00

The coup of April 20, 1964 saw the removal and execution of Albert Speer and the rise of SS Reichsfuhrer Reinhard Heydrich to the position of world leader.

Due to Speer's refusal to attack Japan over its nuclear program as well as his plans to initiate multi-party elections, Heydrich struck against the Reichs Chancellor. He found numerous allies throughout the Reich: party members afraid of losing their place in the upcoming elections; Wermacht, Luftwaffe, and Kriegsmarine commanders sure that Speer was prepared to enact further budget cuts to the military; industrialists promised the renewal of slave labor and less government intervention. Heydrich built a coalition among these men before embarking on his daring strike for power.

Known as Operation Phoenix, the SS rounded up Speer and his closest allies the night of Germany's greatest triumph: landing an Aryan on the moon. Only Goebbels avoided imprisonment, his usefulness as a propagandist a sure asset the SS could exploit to explain the shift in power and prevent full-scale civil war. President Goering was quietly retired to his estate at Karinhall and his office fused once more with that of the chancellor which was in turn fused with that of Reichsfuhrer.

Speer would be put on trial and found guilty of betraying Germany for his refusal to strike at Japan, for his undermining of the military, and for threatening to dissolve the Party. Found guilty on all charges, he was executed and denied a state funeral, branded a traitor instead and his body cremated with the ashes scattered.

Heydrich proved an adept leader. Realizing the importance of Speer's programs and government design, he did little to upset them. The bureaucrats and technocrats continued to work smoothly under his reign, though the government increasingly found itself integrated into the SS with the requirement of a rank structure, uniforms, and swearing of allegiance to the Reichsfuhrer.

Heydrich's first act was to prepare for war with the Japanese Empire. Military leaders were saw their budgets swell as reserves were mobilized and plans made. He signed a treaty with President Vlassov offering the Russian leader the return of Siberia in exchange for his invasion of said Japanese province following the initial German strike. Vlassov readily accepted under the condition that no German soldiers would move through Russian territory and an extension of their non-aggression pact be included. Secret negotiations with India assured her neutrality in the war to come in exchange for Burma.

June 21, 1965, Heydrich initiated Operation Sunblossom. From three aircraft carriers which had covertly moved into the Pacific via Chile, the island of Honshu was struck by numerous nuclear weapons destroying key cities such as Tokyo, Kyoto, Osaka, Nagasaki, and Hiroshima. Russian forces immediately struck into Siberia surprising Imperial Troops still confused following the collapse of the Japanese High Command. German forces would strike into Western China through Central Asia and take advantage of the uprisings of the Chinese who saw the Germans as liberators. The Japanese grip on China proved tenuous despite nearly thirty years of occupation (and wiping out three-quarters of the Chinese population through their "three alls" program). The Japanese quickly lost control of the Chinese Provisional Government which proclaimed independence in September. Within three months the war was over. Sporadic fighting continued with scattered pockets of Japanese forces, especially in Southeast Asia, but the main phase of the war was finished. China would be recognized as an independent entity as would Manchukuo, Tibet, and Korea, though German industrialists were already looking for ways to penetrate the new markets. Southeast Asia (French Indochina, Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia, and Siam) remained in Japanese hands though with the collapse of authority in Japan itself, General Umezu declared a military junta under his rule. Siberia was turned over to Russia while India was informed that if they wanted Burma they would have to earn it "with their own blood." The Japanese home islands suffered greatly for the remainder of 1965. Millions died in the nuclear strikes, tens of millions more in the starvation and chaos caused by the sudden collapse in their infrastructure. The Emperor and the entire royal family were wiped out dispelling the myth of his immortality and power. The Empire of Japan was no more.

Heydrich would be noted for numerous wars during his reign including Yugoslavia, Turkey, Afghanistan, and the states of the Arabian peninsula where slaughter and bloodshed reached epic proportions as Heydrich demanded the wiping out of all untermenschen. Full scale war with Iran nearly occured following the capture and sacking of Mecca and Medina by the Wermacht. Though Iran would eventually back down, a jihad was declared and an insurgency begun though failing miserably as the native populations dwindled and the insurgents found it increasingly difficult to blend in.

Heydrich would turn his attention to other matters. The remaining untermensch in Africa, Europe, and Asia under German hegemony would be culled as factories began to move into China and Machukuo to make use of the cheap labor within. Also on the economic side, a treaty was drawn up to include all nations outlawing trade barriers, tariffs, and other boundaries to German economic dominance in the international arena. With cheap labor derived from Asia, no power could match Germany's low costs of production. No country dared resist under the threat of nuclear extinction.

Heydrich began to foster and support fascist parties abroad. Their greatest successes came in South America. Following their success in Brazil, the National Congress was dissolved and the and power centralized in the executive while Argentina and Chile ascended to membership in the Germanic Union. The National Socialist States and Confederate States of America would also see ascension to the Germanic Union. Switzerland would see an increase of funding and support for the rise of a pan-german movement aimed at the union of Switzerland to the Germanic Union. It would also see itself blockaded and pressured politically until anschluss occured in 1972 finally uniting the whole of Europe under one power. Brazil would likewise join the Germanic Union in 1972.

Brazil proved a pet project for Heydrich. A country long noted for its interracial past, the Reichsfuhrer, the SS, and the leaders of Brazil worked to turn the public against those dubbed untermenschen via a gradual series of repressive laws and edicts. Blame for economic stagnation, political instability, and more were laid at the feet of non-whites. Soon camps began to arise with the properties and assets of non-whites being transferred to the government for distribution among the whites further solidifying their support for the regime's assaults. Many close friends of Heydrich stated that the Reichfuhrer took excessive glee in watching the steady change in Brazil. Brazil would join the Germanic Union in 1974.

Through Argentina and Chile, Heydrich was able to fight proxy wars drawing numerous nations into conflict with the Reich. Chile battled Peru and Bolivia as Argentina fought Uruguay, Parauguay, and Bolivia.

In space, Heydrich ordered the construction of weapons platforms. Fearing that keeping nuclear weapons on the ground would leave them vulnerable, launch platforms were constructed in orbit as a threat to those who would challenge the almighty power of the Reich. Construction of these platforms would continue until the mid-eighties with the final warhead being shipped into space in 1987.

The Church would undergo further change as pagan ceremonies began to be introduced and Christian values were stripped out. The figure of Jesus was increasingly buried with Hitler taking far greater prominence. This would culminate in the shift of the calendar from Christian (AD) to a Reich (DR) centered numerology with year 1 being the Christian year 1932, the year that Hitler was elected president and the Third Reich established. The usage of the Christian system would only continue in the United States of America, Central and parts of South America.

Those few Jews still alive continued to hide from the all reaching hand of the SS in South America and the United States.

Heydrich would die in 1976 (44 DR) from a heart attack. At his lavish funeral, the new Reichsfuhrer proclaimed Heydrich Hitler's true successor, a valiant Aryan, and a conqueror whom Germania should worship and remember for all time.

SOURCE: Harpenau, Franz Rise of the Reichsfuhrer: Heydrich the Great

The Germanic Union

2008-05-30T11:45:00.000-07:00

The Germanic Union (GU) is a political and economic community of seventeen member states, located in Europe and Africa. It was established in 1957 by the Nuremberg Treaty, adding new areas of policy to the existing Economic Union created by Reich Chancellor Albert Speer in 1946. With almost 300 million citizens, the GU combined generates an estimated 50%-60% share of the world's nominal gross domestic product.

The GU has developed a single market through a standardised system of laws which apply in all member states, guaranteeing the freedom of movement of people, goods, services and capital. It maintains a common trade policy, agricultural and fisheries policies, and a regional development policy. All seventeen member states have adopted a common currency, the mark.

It is a federal system of government with shared power between the overarching European Parliament and the legislatures of member states. It has supranational bodies able to make decisions without the agreement of members though local issues are largely decided by the states themselves. Important institutions and bodies of the GU include the Parliament, the Council, the Court of Justice and the Central Bank. GU citizens elect the Parliament every five years.

The GU traces its origins to the Economic Union formed among eight countries in 1946. Since then the GU has grown in size through the accession of new member states and has increased its powers by the addition of new policy areas to its remit. The Treaty of Munich, signed in December 1958, further cemented the GU as an overarching government body bringing signatory nations into a single governmental entity.

Economic Union
The political climate after the end of World War II favored Western European unity under German hegemony. To Reich Chancellor Albert Speer, the originator of the Economic Union, it was a method to draw Europe together for economic recovery and to forestall any future wars upon the European continent. One of the first successful proposals for Economic Union came in 1946 with the the European Economic Community (EEC) establishing a customs union between Germany and France. With increasing German control of French business, German pressure for a complete dissolution of customs barriers became too great to ignore. It was also seen as a step towards aiding the ailing French economy which had seen major economic drops following their defeat in 1939. Cheap French labor drew German investment with customs barriers between the two nations removed allowing for an easier transfer of capital and trade across the border. The Community's founders declared it "a first step in the federation of Europe", with the hope that this would enable the rebuilding of Europe and to pursue the development of Africa. The other founding members were Italy, Burgundy, Brittany, Hungary, Bulgaria, and Rumania.

European Community
In 1949 the Economic Union enlarged to include Spain, Portugal, Finland, South Africa, Ukraine, Ostland, Muscovy, and Caucuses. The latter four, seen by many as German puppets, were spun off from official German control and recognized as states of their own (though still ruled by a German citizenry who worked closely with Berlin). This allowed Germany a political majority in GU policy. With a coalition between these four states along with Brittany, Burgundy, Italy, and South Africa, Germany was able to steer all decisions made by the union. The United Kingdom would join in 1956.

The first direct, democratic elections of members to the European Parliament were held in 1951. They allowed citizens to elect 300 MEPs to the European Parliament and were the first international election in history.

The Vienna Agreement in 1955 created largely open borders without passport controls between most member states. In 1956 the GU flag began to be used and leaders signed the Single European Act. This revised the way community decision making operated to take account of its greater membership, aimed to further reduce trade barriers and introduce greater European Political Cooperation.

Germanic Union
In 1957, the Nuremberg Treaty was signed recognizing the supremacy of the European Parliament over all member states. It drew all colonies under the member nations into the Office of Regional Development, established a supranational tax to support the Union, began military integration, and established a single currency. The treaty came into force April 20, 1957.

1958 saw the ratification of the Act for the Preservation of Germanic Character. It established the conditions of citizenship in the GU. It also gave authority to the SS under the auspices of the Germanic Union to begin marking citizens as fit or unfit for life in the new Germanic Union. Those marked unfit were to be removed and segregated in camps for liquidation in order to ensure the purity of Germanic blood and the eradication of radical elements.

Nations outside the Germanic Union have pressed for accession to the GU including the Confederate States of America, the Nationalist States of America, Argentina, and Chile. Though treaties have been signed creating a quasi-union between these nations and the GU including a dismantling of trade barriers and a cohesive foreign and domestic policy, no official treaty has been signed recognizing union between them.

Member Nations

Germany, France, United Kingdom, Italy, Spain, Portugal Finland, Bulgaria, Hungary, Rumania, Brittany, Burgundy, Ostland, Muscovy, Ukraine, Kaukusus, South Africa

Conservatives Win!

2008-05-26T21:16:00.001-07:00

October 26, 1955 - Anthony Eden had become the new Prime Minister following the defeat of Labour at the polls. Many have cited the economic downturn of the nation as the contributing factor to Labour's fall from power.

Eden has vowed to initiate talks with Germany in order to join the Economic Union as part of his economic plan to salvage Britain's manufacturing sector. He has aslo sworn to cut military spending and to consider granting independence to what few British colonies remain.

Atlee's popularity has been declining since the last election in 1952. Failed wars with South Africa in Botswana, Rhodesia, Swaziland, and Lesotho coupled with Labour's socialist policies failing to stimulate the economy have led to a rush to embrace the Conservatives.

With the pounds value fast falling, many are afraid of what the future holds.

SOURCE: Manchester Guardian

Russia to the 1960s

2008-05-26T19:34:00.000-07:00

Following the surrender to the Third Reich in 1940 and peace with Japan in 1942, the once mighty Soviet Empire had collapsed into a rump state of roughly 40 million. Ruled by a military junta headed by General Vlassov, moves were made to secure Russia's remaining raw materials and to rebuild lost industry.

With threats on both fronts, Vlassov made conscription mandatory with every citizen, including women, required to undergo military training and to remain in the reserves up until the age of 60. The military became the central facet of Russian existence roughly comparable to anicent Sparta. Well over 50% of Russia's budget was allocated to military spending. Vlassov also paid former Wermacht and Luftwaffe officers handsomely to come to Russia to train his soldiers in armor, infantry, and air tactics.

Foreign policy was also important. Vlassov ensured non-aggression treaties with both the Third Reich and Japanese Empire in order to secure his borders. The general became adept at playing both sides off against each other in order to preserve his country's precarious position. He understood the friction that began to develop between both parties and played up his place as a buffer between the growing super powers.

The economy was built on a war footing. Everything was subjugated to keeping the sword sharp against possible invasion. This was further reinforced by the occassional refugee who wandered into Russia either from the Third Reich or the Japanese Empire relating horrific tales of what was happening to Slavs abroad. Still, an embryonic consumer economy began to emerge among the population as fears of invasion from either side abated by 1955. This would later lead to double digit growth in the 1960s as military spending began to decline and consumer investment rose coupled with the government cutting imports.

Vlassov proved liberal in his later years allowing for the formation of a Duma elected by the people. Though it held little power, it allowed for the people to offer their opinions and open dialogue at the local level. By the 1960s, the Duma began to accumulate true legislative power as the population pressed for economic reform, tired of the spartan environment they were captured in. This led to further reforms and Vlassov eventually allowing for presidential elections which he won handily. Some claimed voter fraud though others believed the people embraced the general as their father, protecting them as he had for decades.

Attempts were made to woo back the lost Central Asian republics though prodding by Germany quickly ended this political action.

The Russian arts flourished beginning in the late 1950s. Fatalist in nature, garnering a romantic streak in later years, it served to intiate a movement which would migrate to the Reich and abroad with its stress on mortality and its acceptance of suffering.

SOURCE: SS Factbook

Apartheid

2008-05-26T08:27:00.000-07:00

Apartheid (meaning separateness in Afrikaans, cognate to English apart and -hood) was a system of legalized racial segregation enforced by the National Party (NP) South African government beginning in 1943. It arose from a history of settler rule and Dutch and British colonialism, which became policies of separation after South Africa gained self-governance as a dominion within the British Empire and were expanded and formalised into a system of legitimised racism and white nationalism after 1943.

Apartheid legislation classified inhabitants and visitors into racial groups (black, white, coloured and Asian). The system of apartheid sparked significant internal resistance. The government responded to a series of popular uprisings and protests with police brutality, which in turn increased local support for the armed resistance struggle. In response to popular and political resistance, the apartheid government resorted to detentions without trial, torture, censorship, and the banning of political opposition from organisations such as the African National Congress, the Black Consciousness Movement, the Azanian People's Organisation, the Pan Africanist Congress, and the United Democratic Front, which were popularly considered liberation movements effectively crushing opposition to Apartheid policy.

White South Africa became increasingly militarised, embarking on the so-called border wars in Rhodesia, Basutoland, Bechuanaland, and Swaziland with the covert support of the Third Reich, and later sending the South African Defence Force into black townships.

Under Apartheid, South African blacks were stripped of their citizenship, legally becoming citizens of one of ten, theoretically sovereign, bantustans (homelands). The government created the homelands out of the territory of Black Reserves founded during the British Imperial period. These reserves were akin to the US Indian Reservations, Canadian First Nations reserves, or Australian aboriginal reserves. Many black South Africans, however, never resided in these "homelands." The homeland system disenfranchised black people residing in "white South Africa" by restricting their voting rights to the black homelands, the least economically-productive areas of the country. The government segregated education, medical care, and other public services with inferior standards for blacks. The black education system within "white South Africa", by design, prepared blacks for lives as a labouring class. There was a deliberate policy in "white South Africa" of making services for black people inferior to those of whites, to try to "encourage" black people to move into the black homelands, hence black people ended up with services inferior to those of whites, and, to a lesser extent, to those of Indians, and 'coloureds'.

When black South Africans began to rebel in the 1950s, the South African government took a more repressive approach adopting the concentration camps last seen in the Boer War. Situations within the camps were bleak with thousands dying of starvation, typhus, or beatings at the hands of guards. It was not long before these concentration camps became death camps to enact a final solution to South Africa's black problem. The South African problem would be liquidated within a decade.

SOURCE: Dames, Jan Dark Africa: The Brutal History of National Rule

Africa 1955

2008-05-26T07:57:00.000-07:00

United States 1955

2008-05-26T07:56:00.001-07:00

The National Socialist States of America

2008-05-26T07:31:00.000-07:00

Though nominally under the leadership of Fritz Julius Kuhn, Occupied America found itself in the grip of Reinhard Heydrich. Far from an incompetent leader, Heydrich proved adept at building support among the American populace. Through minor concessions, intelligent planning, and the achievement of true economic results which served to stimulate the areas under his authority, Occupied America began to turn further and further away from the free states west of the Mississippi.

It was not unexpected. The situation in America had been bleak throughout the Depression. Under the Hoover and Garner administrations little economic headway had been gained. The national economy had contracted to between 25%-50% of its worth in 1929 with rampant unemployment and stagnated ever afterwards. Millions starved or sacrificed their pride and accepted government handouts. When Dewey was elected on the promise of turning the nation around, he instead pushed America into a war it was not ready for worsening an already bleak situation. Many Americans had expected to be crushed beneath the heel of Nazi oppression much like Poland, the Soviet Union, and other occupied territories. So it was with shock that most Americans discovered their situation improving throughout the fourties and fifties. Jobs were created, the hungry were fed, and the scars of war disappeared beneath an increasingly frenzied phase of reconstruction.

Heydrich had his reasons to push for a renewed America. It would serve as his powerbase in the years to come, a counterbalance to those states under his rivals in the Party. Economically it filled the coffers of the SS, that money used to bribe the proper officials in Heydrich's clandestine scheme to build enough support for his eventual coup in 1965 as well as to strengthen the SS for a possible showdown with the military. A second reason was Heydrich's desire to prove his administrative capabilities. Third, Heydrich attained numerous allies among the American population using it as a labor pool for his forces. Brilliant SS leaders would emerge from the occupied territories filling his ranks.

Of course negative repercussions arose from Heydrich's influence. A streak of racism would creep across Occupied America leading to the establishment of camps which were quickly filled with blacks, Poles, Jews, and others who did not slip across the Mississippi before the crackdown. These debilitating races were deemed responsible for the weakening of the American character and wiped from the face of her shores. America's cooperation in genocide served to cement a stronger bond between occupier and occupied and also to purge defeatist feelings as all that was weak was scapegoated; a sacrifice to regain a dark pride.

In 1954, Occupied America officially broke from the rump United States to form the National Socialist States of America. The United States recognized her independence under the terms that payment for occupation by German troops would end, reparation payments would likewise cease, and the border between the two nations would be demilitarized.

The National Socialist States of America would adopt the Reichmark as its currency and join the Economic Union. It would also include Canada which had also been occupied by Germany following the war. This new nation would be a powerful ally of Heydrich's in the years to come, its leadership personally chosen by the SS Reichsfuhrer to ensure his subtle control.

SOURCE: Arnold, Kevin The Dissolution of the United States

Ark of the Covenant Found!

2008-05-26T07:30:00.000-07:00

30 January 1951 - Following an exhaustive search, Wilhelm Filchner claims to have found the Ark of the Covenant in Axum, Ethiopia. Following a trail of evidence which detailed the Ark's transfer from the ancient kingdom of Israel to the Empire of Ethiopia, Filchner and his SS supporters entered the Italian territory to discover if the legends were true.

At the Church of Our Lady Mary of Zion, Filchner's SS contingent subdued guards to enter the compound where they found what is believed to be the legendary artifact. The discovery is currently being transferred to Berlin for study. If found to be the legendary Ark, it may shed light on biblical studies.

There are those who state that, should this prove to be the Ark of legend, it may serve to undermine Christian status throughout the world. Though an object of great historical value, it lends a mortal view of an immortal principle: the greatness of God. SHould it prove nothing more than an ancient curiosity rather than an object of great power, God himself could be relegated to myth rather than further elevated as a symbol of Truth.

SOURCE: Deutsche Zeitung

The Algerian War

2008-05-23T00:49:00.000-07:00

The Algerian War (1951-1957), led to the French adopting the policy of ethnic cleansing throughout its colonies. One of the most important colonization wars, it was a complex conflict characterized by guerrilla warfare, maquis fighting, terrorism against civilians, use of torture on both sides and counter-terrorism operations by the French Army. Effectively started on 24 July 1951 following the death of President Petain, the conflict shook the French State's foundations and led to its strengthening of ties with Germany. Under directives from Pierre Laval's government, the French Army initiated a campaign of "pacification" of French territory.

This "public order operation" quickly grew to a size where it could be called a full-scale war. Algerians, who at first were mostly in favor of peace and tranquillity, turned increasingly toward the goal of independence, supported by other Arab countries. Meanwhile, the French divided themselves on the issues of "French Algeria" (l'Algérie Française), of the maintenance of the status quo, the acceptance of negotiations and of an intermediate status between independence and complete integration in the French State, and complete independence.

Because of the instability of the French State, Premier Laval assumed the title of president fusing it with the office of Premier throughout the conflict. Laval's assumption of absolute power initiated policy geared towards Algeria's continued occupation and integration with the French Community. As the conflict wore on taking increasing tolls on the French State, Laval became more and more dependent on German military and economic aid. The conflict proved pivotal in France's decision to enter developing deeper ties with the Reich leading to the emergence of what would eventually be the European Union. To this day, the war has provided an important strategy frame for counter-insurgency thinkers.

Algerian Nationalism
Algerians (natives and Europeans altogether) took part in World War I, fighting for France as tirailleurs (such regiments were created as early as 1842), tabors, goumiers, and spahis. With Wilson's 1918 proclamation of the Fourteen Points, whose fifth point proclaimed that "A free, open-minded, and absolutely impartial adjustment of all colonial claims, based upon a strict observance of the principle that in determining all such questions of sovereignty the interests of the populations concerned must have equal weight with the equitable claims of the government whose title is to be determined," some Algerian intellectuals — dubbed oulémas — began to nurture the desire for, if not independence, at least autonomy and self-rule. It is in this context that Hadj Abd el-Kadir (grand-son of Abd el-Kadir, who had spearheaded the resistance against the French in the first half of the 19th century, and a member of the directing committee of the French Communist Party (PCF)), founded in 1926 the North African Star (Etoile nordafricaine) party, to which Messali Hadj, also member of the PCF and of its affiliated trade union, the CGTU, joined the following year. The North African Party broke from the PCF in 1928, before being dissolved in 1929 at Paris' demand. Amid growing discontent from the Algerian population, the Third Republic (1871-1940) acknowledged some demands, and the Popular Front initiated the Blum-Viollette proposalin 1936 which was supposed to enlighten the Indigenous Code by giving French citizenship to a small number of of Muslims. The pieds-noirs (Algerians of European origin) however violently demonstrated against it, while the North African Party opposed it, leading to the project's abandonment. The independent party was dissolved in 1937 and its leaders were charged with illegal reconstitution of a dissolved league, leading to Messali Hadj's 1937 foundation of the Parti du peuple algérien (Algerian People's Party, PPA), which this time no longer espoused full independence, but only an extensive autonomy. This new party was again dissolved in 1939.

Independent leader Ferhat Abbas founded the Algerian Popular Union(Union populaire algérienne) in 1938, while writing in 1943 the Algerian People's Manifest (Manifeste du peuple algérien). Arrested after the May 8, 1945 Sétif massacre, during which the French Army and Pied Noir mobs killed about 6,000 Algerians, Abbas founded in 1946 the Democratic Union of the Algerian Manifesto (UDMA) and was elected as a deputy. Founded in 1951, the National Liberation Front (FLN) succeeded Messali Hadj's Algerian People's Party (PPA), while its leaders created an armed wing, the Armée de Libération Nationale (National Liberation Army) to engage in armed struggle against French authority.

Beginning of hostilities
In the early morning hours of July 24, 1951, FLN maquisards — (guerrillas), or "terrorists" as they were called by the French — launched attacks in various parts of Algeria against military and civilian targets following the death of President Petain as the nation mourned their leader. They also attacked many French civilians, killing several. From Cairo, the FLN broadcast a proclamation calling on Muslims in Algeria to join in a national struggle for the "restoration of the Algerian state - sovereign, democratic and social - within the framework of the principles of Islam." It was the reaction of Laval who set the tone of French policy. On July 25, he declared in the National Assembly: "One does not compromise when it comes to defending the internal peace of the nation, the unity and integrity of the State. The Algerian departments are part of the French State. They have been French for a long time, and they are irrevocably French. Between them and metropolitan France there can be no conceivable secession." At first, and despite the May 8, 1945 Sétif massacre and pro-Independence struggle before WWII, most Algerians were in favour of a relative status-quo. While Messali Hadj had radicalized by forming the FLN, Ferhat Abbas maintained a more moderate, electoral strategy. Less than 500 fellaghas (pro-Independence) fighters) could be counted at the beginning of the conflict. The Algerian population radicalized itself in particular because of the increasingly brutal methods employed by French troops throughout the war.

The FLN
The FLN uprising presented nationalist groups with the question of whether to adopt armed revolt as the main course of action. During the first year of the war, Ferhat Abbas's UDMA, the ulema, and the PCA maintained a friendly neutrality toward the FLN. In April 1953, Abbas flew to Cairo, where he formally joined the FLN. This action brought in many évolués who had supported the UDMA in the past. The AUMA also threw the full weight of its prestige behind the FLN. Bendjelloul and the pro-integrationist moderates had already abandoned their efforts to mediate between the French and the rebels.

After the collapse of the MTLD, Messali Hadj formed the leftist Mouvement National Algérien (MNA), which advocated a policy of violent revolution and total independence similar to that of the FLN. The ALN, the military wing of the FLN, subsequently wiped out the MNA guerrilla operation, and Messali Hadj's movement lost what little influence it had had in Algeria. However, the MNA gained the support of many Algerian workers in France through the Union Syndicale des Travailleurs Algériens (Union of Algerian Workers). The FLN also established a strong organization in France to oppose the MNA. "Café wars," resulting in nearly 5,000 deaths, were waged in France between the two rebel groups throughout the war years.

On the political front, the FLN worked to persuade — and to coerce — the Algerian masses to support the aims of the Independence movement through contributions. FLN-influenced labour unions, professional associations, and students' and women's organizations were created to lead opinion in diverse segments of the population but here too violent coercion was widely used. Frantz Fanon, a psychiatrist from Martinique who became the FLN's leading political theorist, provided a sophisticated intellectual justification for the use of violence in achieving national liberation. He stated that only through violence could an oppressed people attain human status. From Cairo, Ahmed Ben Bella ordered the liquidation of potential interlocuteurs valables, those independent representatives of the Muslim community acceptable to the French through whom a compromise or reforms within the system might be achieved.

As the FLN campaign of influence and terror spread through the countryside, many European farmers in the interior (called Pieds-Noirs) sold their holdings and sought refuge in Algiers and other Algerian cities. After a series of bloody, random massacres and bombings by Muslim Algerians in several towns and cities, the French Pieds-Noirs and urban French population began to demand that the French government engage in sterner countermeasures, including the proclamation of a state of emergency, capital punishment for political crimes, denunciation of all separatists, and most ominously, a call for 'tit-for-tat' reprisal operations by police, military, and para-military forces. Colon vigilante units, whose unauthorized activities were conducted with the passive cooperation of police authorities, carried out ratonnades (literally, rat-hunts; synonymous with Arab-killings) against suspected FLN members of the Muslim community. The FLN terror and intimidation campaign gave these hunts strong motivation and starting points.

By 1952, with French colonials and Algerians murdering one another in greater and greater numbers devolving Algeria into a state of anarchy, Laval was convinced that the military was the only way to resolve the conflict.

After the Philippeville Massacre
The FLN adopted tactics similar to those of nationalist groups in Asia, and the French did not realize the seriousness of the challenge they faced until 1952, when the FLN moved into urbanized areas. "An important watershed in the Algerian War was the massacre of Pieds-Noirs civilians by the FLN near the town of Philippeville in August 1952. Before this operation, FLN policy was to attack only military and government-related targets. The commander of the Constantine wilaya/region, however, decided a drastic escalation was needed. The killing by the FLN and its supporters of 123 people, including 71 French, including old women and babies, shocked Governor General Jacques Soustelle into calling for more repressive measures against the rebels. The government claimed it killed 1,273 guerrillas in retaliation; according to the FLN and to The Times magazine, 12,000 Algerians were massacred by the armed forces and police, as well as Pieds-Noirs gangs. Soustelle's repression was an early cause of the Algerian population's rallying to the FLN.After Philippeville, Soustelle declared sterner measures and an all-out war began. In 1953, demonstrations of French Algerians forced the French government to increase the number of French troops in the region.

Soustelle's successor, Governor General Lacoste, a socialist, abolished the Algerian Assembly. Lacoste saw the assembly, which was dominated by pieds-noirs, as hindering the work of his administration, and he undertook to rule Algeria by decree. He favored stepping up French military operations and granted the army exceptional police powers — a concession of dubious legality under French law — to deal with the mounting political violence. He called for the establishment of camps to house both captured and suspected militants, a reality by the end of 1953, as well as other repressive measures to root out rebels including executions.

In August/September 1953, the internal leadership of the FLN met to organize a formal policy-making body to synchronize the movement's political and military activities. The highest authority of the FLN was vested in the thirty-four-member National Council of the Algeria Revolution (Conseil National de la Révolution Algérienne, CNRA), within which the five-man Committee of Coordination and Enforcement (Comité de Coordination et d'Exécution, CCE) formed the executive. The externals, including Ben Bella, knew the conference was taking place but by chance or design on the part of the internals were unable to attend.

Meanwhile, in October 1953, the French Air Force intercepted a Moroccan DC-3 that was flying to Tunis, carrying Ahmed Ben Bella, Mohammed Boudiaf, Mohamed Khider and Hocine Aït Ahmed, and forced it to land in Algiers. Lacoste had the FLN external political leaders arrested and executed on orders by Laval. This action caused the remaining rebel leaders to harden their stance.

France took a more openly hostile view of President Gamal Nasser's material and political assistance to the FLN, which some French analysts believed was the most important element in sustaining continued rebel activity in Algeria. This attitude was a factor in persuading France to participate in the November 1953 invasion of Egypt with Italy and Germany.

During 1954, support for the FLN weakened as the breach between the internals and externals widened. Aid from Arab nations dwindled in the wake of Egypt's collapse, pressured by the Reich not to intervene in what was considered France's private affairs.

Writer, philosopher and playwright Albert Camus, native of Algiers, often associated with existentialism, tried unsuccessfully to persuade both sides to at least leave civilians alone, writing editorials against the use of torture in Combat newspaper. The FLN considered him a fool, and some Pieds Noirs considered him a traitor. Nevertheless, Camus said that when faced with a radical choice he would eventually support his community. This statement made him lose his status among the left-wing intellectuals; when he died in 1960 in a car crash, the official thesis of an ordinary accident (a quick open and shut case) has left more than a few observers doubtful. His widow has claimed that Camus, though discreet, was in fact an ardent supporter of French Algeria in the last years of his life.

Battle of Algiers
To increase international and domestic French attention to their struggle, the FLN decided to bring the conflict to the cities and to call a nationwide general strike. The most notable manifestation of the new urban campaign was the Battle of Algiers, which began on September 30, 1953, when three women placed bombs at three sites including the downtown office of Air France. The FLN carried out an average of 800 shootings and bombings per month through the spring of 1954, resulting in many civilian casualties and inviting a crushing response from the authorities. The 1954 general strike was largely observed by Muslim workers and businesses.

General Jacques Massu was instructed to use whatever methods necessary to restore order in the city. Using paratroopers, he broke the strike and then in the succeeding months systematically destroyed the FLN infrastructure in Algiers. But the FLN had succeeded in showing its ability to strike at the heart of French Algeria and in rallying and forcing a mass response to its demands among urban Muslims. Later Massu's troops punished villages that were suspected of harboring rebels by attacking them with mobile troops or aerial bombardment and gathered 2 million of the rural Muslim population and marched them off to concentration camps.

Guerrilla War
From its origins in 1951 as ragtag maquisards numbering in the hundreds and armed with a motley assortment of hunting rifles, the FLN had evolved by 1954 into a disciplined fighting force of nearly 40,000. More than 30,000 were organized along conventional lines in external units that were stationed in Moroccan and Tunisian sanctuaries near the Algerian border, where they served primarily to divert some French manpower from the main theaters of guerrilla activity to guard against infiltration. The brunt of the fighting was borne by the internals in the wilayat; estimates of the numbers of internals range from 6,000 to more than 25,000, with thousands of part-time irregulars.

During 1953 and 1954, the FLN successfully applied hit-and-run tactics in accordance with guerrilla warfare theory, which was at the time being formalized, as "people's war". Whilst some of this was aimed at military targets a significant amount was invested in a terror campaign against those in any way deemed to be supporting or encouraging French authority. This resulted in acts of sadistic torture and the most brutal violence against all including women and children. Specializing in ambushes and night raids and avoiding direct contact with superior French firepower, the internal forces targeted army patrols, military encampments, police posts, and colonial farms, mines, and factories, as well as transportation and communications facilities. Once an engagement was broken off, the guerrillas merged with the population in the countryside. Kidnapping was commonplace, as were the ritual murder and mutilation of captured French military, pied-noirs of both genders and every age, suspected collaborators or traitors. At first, the FLN targeted only Muslim officials of the colonial regime; later, they coerced, maimed (cutting off ears and nose with a douk-douk was a favored torture) or killed village elders, government employees, and even simple peasants who simply refused to support them. Sometimes simply for smoking. Moreover, during the first two years of the conflict, the guerrillas killed about 6,000 Muslims and 1,000 non-Muslims according to a former paratrooper. Although successful in engendering an atmosphere of fear and uncertainty within both communities in Algeria, the revolutionaries' coercive tactics suggested that they had not yet inspired the bulk of the Muslim people to revolt against French colonial rule. Gradually, however, the FLN gained control in certain sectors of the Aurès, the Kabylie, and other mountainous areas around Constantine and south of Algiers and Oran. In these places, the FLN established a simple but effective— although frequently temporary — military administration that was able to collect/extort taxes and food and to recruit manpower. But it was never able to hold large fixed positions. Algerians all over the country also initiated underground social, judicial, and civil organizations, gradually building their own state.

The loss of competent field commanders both on the battlefield and through defections and political purges created difficulties for the FLN. Moreover, power struggles in the early years of the war split leadership in the wilayat, particularly in the Aurès. Some officers created their own fiefdoms, using units under their command to settle old scores and engage in private wars against military rivals within the FLN.

French Counter-Insurgency Operations
Despite complaints from the military command in Algiers, the French government was reluctant for many months to admit that the Algerian situation was out of control and that what was viewed officially as a pacification operation had developed into a major war. By 1953, France had committed more than 400,000 troops to Algeria. Although the elite colonial infantry airborne units and the Foreign Legion bore the brunt of offensive counterinsurgency combat operations, approximately 170,000 Muslim Algerians also served in the regular French army, most of them volunteers. France also sent air force and naval units to the Algerian theater, including rotary-winged craft (helicopters). In addition to service as a flying ambulances and cargo carrier, French forces utilized the helicopter for the first time in a ground attack role in order to pursue and destroy fleeing FLN guerrilla units. The French also used napalm.

The French army resumed an important role in local Algerian administration through the Special Administration Section (Section Administrative Spécialisée, SAS), created in 1952. The SAS's mission was to establish contact with the Muslim population and weaken nationalist influence in the rural areas by asserting the "French presence" there. SAS officers — called képis bleus (blue caps) — also recruited and trained bands of loyal Muslim irregulars, known as harkis. Armed with shotguns and using guerrilla tactics similar to those of the FLN, the harkis, who eventually numbered about 180,000 volunteers, more than the FLN effectives were an ideal instrument of counterinsurgency warfare.
Harkis were mostly used in conventional formations, either in all-Algerian units commanded by French officers or in mixed units. Other uses included platoon or smaller size units, attached to French battalions. A third use was an intelligence gathering role, with some reported minor pseudo-operations in support of their intelligence collection. According to military historian Helmut Klein, however, "the extent of these pseudo-operations appears to have been very limited both in time and scope... The most widespread use of pseudo type operations was during the 'Battle of Algiers' in 1954. The principal French employer of covert agents in Algiers was the Fifth Bureau, the psychological warfare branch." The Fifth Bureau "made extensive use of "turned" FLN members", one such network being run by Captain Paul-Alain Leger of the 10th Paras. "Persuaded" to work for the French forces, including by the use of torture and threats against their family, these agents "mingled with FLN cadres. They planted incriminating forged documents, spread false rumours of treachery and fomented distrust... As a frenzy of throat-cutting and disemboweling broke out among confused and suspicious FLN cadres, nationalist slaughtered nationalist from April to September 1954 and did France's work for her". But this type of operation involved individual operatives rather than organized covert units.

The French focused on developing native guerrilla groups that would fight against the FLN, one of whom fought in the Southern Atlas Mountains, equipped by the French Army.

The FLN also used pseudo-guerrilla strategies against the French Army on one occasion, with the "Force K," a group of 1,000 Algerians who volunteered to serve in Force K as guerrillas for the French. But most of these members were either already FLN members, or were turned by the FLN, once enlisted. Corpses of purported FLN members displayed by the unit were in fact those of dissidents and members of other Algerian groups killed by the FLN. The French Army finally discovered the war ruse, and tried to hunt down Force K members. However, some 600 managed to escape and join the FLN with weapons and equipment.

Late in 1954, General Raoul Salan, commanding the French army in Algeria, instituted a system of quadrillage, or block warden system, dividing the country into sectors, each permanently garrisoned by troops responsible for suppressing rebel operations in their assigned territory. Salan's methods sharply reduced the instances of FLN terrorism but tied down a large number of troops in static defense. Salan also constructed a heavily patrolled system of barriers to limit infiltration from Tunisia and Morocco. The best known of these was the Morice Line (named for the French defense minister, André Morice), which consisted of an electrified fence, barbed wire, and mines over a 320-kilometer stretch of the Tunisian border.

The French military command ruthlessly applied the principle of collective responsibility to villages suspected of sheltering, supplying, or in any way cooperating with the guerrillas. Villages that could not be reached by mobile units were subject to aerial bombardment. FLN Guerrillas that fled to caves or other remote hiding places were tracked and hunted down. In one episode, FLN guerrillas who refused to surrender and withdraw from a cave complex were dealt with by French Foreign Legion Pioneer troops, who, lacking flamethrowers or explosives, simply bricked up each cave, leaving the residents to die of suffocation.

Finding it impossible to protect all of Algeria's remote farms and villages, the French government also initiated a program of concentrating large segments of the rural population, including whole villages, in camps under military supervision to prevent them from voluntarily aiding the rebels — or to protect them from FLN extortion. In the three years (1954–57) during which the regroupement program was followed, more than 2 million Algerians were removed from their villages, mostly in the mountainous areas, and resettled in the plains, where many found it impossible to re-establish their accustomed economic or social situations. Living conditions in the fortified villages were poor. Hundreds of empty villages were devastated, and in hundreds of others, orchards and croplands not previously burned by French troops went to seed for lack of care. These population transfers were effective in denying the use of remote villages to FLN guerrillas who had used them as a source of rations and manpower, but also caused significant resentment on the part of the displaced villagers.

The French army shifted its tactics at the end of 1955 from dependence on quadrillage (block warden system) to the use of mobile forces deployed on massive search-and-destroy missions against FLN strongholds. Within the next year, Salan's successor, General Maurice Challe, appeared to have suppressed major rebel resistance.

End of the War
Overextended, with well over half of France's forces being used to hold Algeria, Laval knew the economy could not handle the situation indefinitely. The cost of the war threatened the French State with bankruptcy despite the fact that they had virtually won. Laval took radical measures to solve the situation.

In 1957, Laval approved Operation Autumn which called for all concentration camps to be transformed into death camps. When parts of the French Army balked at serving as cold-blooded executioners, the Pied-noirs stepped forward to fill the gap. Over 7 million "undesirables" would die in the camps. By the end of the operation in 1961, the Pied-noirs were the majority in the country with a population close to 1 million.

Death Toll
Algerians suffered deaths figured at approximately 8 million dead. French military authorities listed their losses at nearly 18,000 dead (6,000 from non-combat-related causes) and 65,000 wounded. European-descended civilian casualties exceeded 10,000 (including 3,000 dead) in 42,000 recorded terrorist incidents. According to French figures, security forces killed 141,000 rebel combatants, and more than 12,000 Algerians died in internal FLN purges during the war. An additional 5,000 died in the "café wars" in France between the FLN and rival Algerian groups. French sources also estimated that 70,000 Muslim civilians were killed, or abducted and presumed killed, by the FLN.

SOURCE: Phillipe, Henri France's Colonial Legacy

Changes to Our Timeline 1940 - 1949

2008-05-23T00:47:00.000-07:00

May 1940 - Operation Babarossa launched

July 1940 - Siege of Leningrad begins

August 1940 - Kiev falls to Wermacht

August 7, 1940 - Operation Wotan launched

September 1940 - Moscow falls. Soviet Union surrenders

September 1940 - Mongolia falls to Imperial Japanese forces

October 1940 - Greece surrenders to Italy

November 1940 - Thomas Dewey elected President of the United States

November 1940 - Xinjiang declares independence

January 1941 - First SS Units enter the Congo

April 1, 1941 - Japan invades Siberia

April 8, 1941 - President Dewey enacts sanctions to cripple Japan's economy

April 1941 - Germany occupies Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, Tajikstan, Kyrgyzstan

April 20, 1941 - Norway, Denmark, Holland, and Belgium annexed to the Reich

October 7, 1941 - Japanese attack of Pearl Harbor

October 8, 1941 - United States declares war on Japan

October 11, 1941 - Hitler declares war on the United States

October 11, 1941 - Siam surrenders to Japan

October 25, 1941 - Guam and Wake Island captured by Japan

November 1941 - Malaya falls to Japan

December 1941 - Singapore surrenders to Japan

March 1942 - German forces land in Labrador

April 12, 1942 - Japanese Imperial Navy defeats the US Navy at Battle of Midway annihilating American presence in Pacific

July 8, 1942 - Armistice ends conflict between Russia and Japan

December 7, 1942 - Early stages of Hawaiian invasion by Japan begins

January 1, 1943 - Panama Canal attacked

March 19, 1943 - Battle of Burnsville. American forces abandon Canada

April 1943 - Blitz begins (aerial attack by Luftwaffe on New York City)

May 1943 - National Party under DF Malan wins elections in South Africa

May 1943 - Battle of Troy. Patton and Rommel meet for the first time

June 1943 - Royal Indian Mutiny

July 1943 - Battle of New York

July 8, 1943 - Battle of Cape May. US Northern Atlantic Fleet decimated by Raeder and the Kriegsmarine

August 5, 1943 - First Battle of the Atlantic. Tactical victory of Kriegsmarine over US Atlantic Fleet

August 1943 - Ottawa surrenders to Guderian

August 1943 - Boston surrenders to Rommel

September 21, 1943 - Sichuan Clique allies with Wang Jingwei

October 1943 - Battle of Blue Water Bridge. German drive into Michigan via Canada

October 3, 1943 - Battle of Harrisburg

October 18, 1943 - Battle of Pittsburgh

November 27, 1943 - Chiang Kai-Shek executed by Provisional Government

December 1943 - Hawaii falls to Japan

February 1944 - UK and Japan agree to an armistice ending conflict in Asia

March 1944 - Atlee becomes Prime Minister via Labour victory in UK

April 30, 1944 - Indianapolis surrenders to Guderian

May 14, 1944 - Cincinnati falls to combined forces of Rommel and Guderian

June 6, 1944 - Battle of Charleston, largest amphibious assault in history

July 4, 1944 - Washington DC falls to German forces. President Dewey dies. Secretary of State Dulles made president

August 1944 - Armistice between US and Third Reich

October 31, 1944 - United States signs peace treaty with Germany

March 3, 1945 - Germany detonates first nuclear weapon

April 30, 1945 - Albert Speer made Chancellor of German Reich. Goering declared President

August 15, 1945 - India declared an independent state with Bose as president

February 4, 1949 - Strom Thurmond declares independence of southern states leading to resurrection of Confederacy

The South Rises Again

2008-05-22T01:23:00.000-07:00

4 February 1949 - Led by President Strom Thurmond, the Confederate States of America re-emerged as a national entity. At the declaration of independence in Birmingham, AL were Reich President Goering, French President Petain, and King George VI.

The new nation is comprised of the former US states of Alabama, Mississippi, Georgia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Virginia, Florida, Louisiana, Kentucky, Tennessee, Texas, and Arkansas with Birmingham as its capital.

The divide occurred over attempts by the federal government of the United States to exert greater control, increasing federal oversight. The United States government had also began a system of desegregation of American military forces which Thurmond and his supporters feared may be the harbinger of an end to Jim Crow laws and segregation policies. With the support of the German Reich, Thurmond and his allies officially withdrew from government following failed attempts at compromise.

Strom Thurmond stated in his address to those in attendance that he was not a traitor. It was the Democratic Party that was guilty of treasonous acts not only against the ideals of the party but to the nation in general and the South in particular. "They would resurrect a new age of Reconstruction. They would strip us of our traditions, our freedoms, our very dignity. Well I will say this to those traitors who turned their backs on the principles of the party. States rights are paramount, our dignity will be upheld, and I wanna tell you, ladies and gentlemen, that there's not enough troops in the US Army to force the Southern people to break down segregation and admit the nigra race into our theaters, into our swimming pools, into our homes, and into our churches. Of utmost importance, segregation now, segregation tomorrow, segregation forever."

SOURCE: Courier-Journal

Albert Speer: Reich Chancellor

2008-05-02T21:23:00.000-07:00

Albert Speer

Reich Chancellor: 30 April 1945 - 20 April 1965

Many have called Speer the most reluctant world leader to ever take the political stage. Yet that did not stop him from becoming the brilliant leader that he was.

An apolitical man, Speer was first drawn to politics at a Party rally he attended in December 1930. There, he was amazed to find himself swept up in the oratory of the Fuhrer. Speer claimed to have been quite affected, not only with Hitler's proposed solutions to the threat of Communism and his renunciation of the Treaty of Versailles, but also with the man himself. It was this attraction to Hitler that would draw Speer into the Party and up to the highest echelons of power.

Despite numerous offers during the early years of the Reich, Speer turned downed numerous posts, instead wishing to focus on the architecture that was making him famous throughout Germany. He was determined to leave a defining mark on the Reich, his obsession with his works bordering on the manic. It was only through Hitler's personal request that Speer accepted the post of Armaments Minister during the Atlantic War. In that post, Speer demonstrated an excellent ability to recognize and recruit talent, manage, and lead. It was also in this post that Speer realized the inefficient system of conflicting and overlapping offices that hindered productivity in the Reich. He would learn quickly how to overcome those who stood in his way, centralizing authority in his hands.

It was a surprise to Speer when he spoke to Hitler on the night of the Fuhrer's 56th birthday. Hitler's health was failing and he believed he could no longer fulfill the obligations of his office. Speer tried to counter Hitler's arguments, but the aged leader would hear none of it. Hitler was not bitter that his body was failing him and that his time to retire had come. The Fuhrer had returned Germany to its proper place as a world power. He had led the Reich to victories over all the western powers. Germany was whole again. His duty was done. But Hitler could not leave unless he was sure that his Reich was in proper hands. The Fuhrer had already decided to split his office back into its two former parts. Goering was to receive the office of Reich President. Hitler wanted Speer to take the office of Chancellor.

For Speer, the idea of accepting such a post was anathema to what he believed. He had only taken the post of Armaments Minister to see Germany through its war with America. He was not a politician. He was an architect. What he had seen of the political leadership sickened him. He had avoided the corruption of power thus far. To be besieged by such sycophants. Speer had been sure this meeting was Hitler's acceptance of his resignation. He had never dreamed the Fuhrer would offer him such power. But offer Hitler did. "I cannot accept your offer, my Fuhrer. I am no leader. Surely there is someone better suited for this than I."

"You say you are a builder," Hitler told Speer, that old fire rekindled in his blue eyes with Speer caught in the center of them. "What do you build for? You build for the future of the Reich. What I am offering you is the chance to shape the Reich itself. No man can understand this more than you. You are an artist. You see things others can't. You are not corrupted like everyone else. You are about the spiritual. The amorphous shape. You take from the ether and make the abstract real. You cannot deny your talents. I have watched you. Nothing is impossible when you set your mind to it. I have entrusted so many of my dreams to you." Tears shone in the Hitler's eyes as his body trembled. The frail Fuhrer put a shaking hand on Speer's shoulder. "These people need you. I need you. Do not forsake us."

As president, Goering proved more a figurehead than an all-powerful ruler. He was content to sit in the background, stepping out for grandiose state functions in glittering, gawdy outfits. He did little to impede Speer in his post as chancellor, instead wandering the vast halls of his presidential palace. But the threat to Speer's power would not come from above. It would come from below.

Speer came to discover that without allies, the system Hitler had constructed threatened to consume him. Gauleiters, Ministers, SS, and others all valued their independence, even against their ruler, battling over the pettiest things. Speer would form an alliance with Goebbels and Himmler against these men in order to push his agenda. Himmler proved quite adept at blackmailing many officials into compliance with his vast collection of data collected over the years through the Gestapo. Goebbels also served his purpose securing loyalty from the people while using his intellect to outthink many who would try to undermine Speer's authority. Goebbels was to be the public voice of the quiet, reserved Speer. Of course these men did not freely work for Speer. In exchange for the loyalty of the SS, Speer gave Himmler free reign to continue his racial policies aimed at extinguishing all untermenschen from the Reich as well as to pursue ventures like his soldier-farmer colonies in the Eastern Territories. Goebbels found himself elevated to the post of vice chancellor and President of the Reichstag as well as given free reign to begin his assault on religion, though Speer served to moderate some of Goebbel's actions in this regard.

Speer proved a practical ruler, pushing reforms throughout the Nazi system. One of his first acts was to clear the cabinet of many of Hitler's appointees and replace them with professionals. For the first time in thirteen years, the cabinet became a working organ in government. Speer would delegate his programs to these officials who in turn made his will happen. Speer was quick to clean up a vast amount of corruption in government, though the SS proved exempt from these drives. The average age of government would decrease under Speer to an average of 38. Speer had an affinity for young, driven men who focused their energies into their duties.

The educational system found itself completely overhauled. Appalled by the type of students produced under Hitler's reign, Speer curtailed many of the powers of the Hitler Youth in order to resurrect the intellectual traditions trampled by the Nazis. Many restrictive laws were relaxed allowing for greater freedoms for teachers in the classroom. Crackpot theories, political ideology, and other programs receded from the curriculum. Incentives were also created to encourage students to enter psychology and physics, now stripped of their pariah status as Jewish studies.

The economy would also see reform under Speer. He knew reparations money would not continue forever, that slave labor would only damage the economy in the long run, and that the massive military currently in existence was not necessary, especially with the nuke now in their arsenal. Demobilization was rushed through in order to cut military spending, though a sizable budget would remain. Slave labor was slowly removed from industry creating jobs for the soldiers returning home. Government was streamlined and many unnecessary projects halted, most especially Hitler's building projects though Welthauptstadt Germania would still be realized by 1964. To further encourage economic growth, Speer had an economic union established that included nearly all of Europe, Canada, and South Africa. It forged a single currency, stripped away tariffs, and allowed German business to dominate like it had never done before.

Great strides were made in agriculture boosting yields and turning the Reich into the breadbasket of the world. Advanced fertilizers, farm equipment, and more put Germany at the forefront of food production.

Germany would also establish the first space agency headed by Werner von Braun. Goals made by the agency were to launch the first artificial satellite (1955), to put a man in orbit (1958), to reach the moon (1964), to establish a lunar colony (1979), and to eventually venture out to other planets in the Solar System.

Technology and medicine would flourish during Speer's reign. He invested mass amounts of state funds into education and grants to spur technological growth, doing his best to get the greatest minds to interact with one another. The medical field made rapid gains, in part because of the use of untermenschen for experiments. The first organ transplants, human study (both physical and psychological), dissections, and more allowed for in depth understanding of the human form. Genetics were also pursued with the goal of eventually breeding out recessive genes and enhancing others.

In the shadows of this golden age, the Final Solution was ramping up. With the Jews of Europe wiped out by 1946, the SS added others to their list for extinction. This would include Slavs, Asiatics, Poles, Slovaks, Czechs, Blacks, Homosexuals, Gypsies, the insane, the handicapped, the retarded, Jews outside Europe, and others. Camps began to appear in Africa, North America, and the Eastern Occupied Territories. They would gradually eat away at the pseudo independence of the Central Asian states as well, gradually turning them into reichskommissariats. Tens of millions would die over the next two decades with the SS declaring their work done by 1963 in all German territories. It is estimated that roughly 100-150 million may have died during this period (including in the expanded territories of the European Union).

The Economic union Speer had crafted would lead to the integration of states into the Reich which created a problem for the superstate. How was Germany to deal with this influx of individuals, many of whom may not be of Aryan stock? The SS would step in, doing racial histories and deciding what groups were worthy and which were meant for the camps. One shocking development saw the southern Italians deemed subhuman as well as the Albanians. Many would flee to independent Yugoslavia to avoid the camps. Despite pressure by Himmler, Speer would not authorize an invasion of the slavic kingdom.

With Europe integrating, German influence, and thus SS influence, spread. The SS would make its presence most known in Africa where it quickly rushed to wipe out the natives or use them as slave labor in the mines. By 1963, roughly 15 million blacks remained in the whole of Africa.

Media would undergo a revolution as television emerged. Goebbels proved the most adept at realizing its full potential, using the new media as a way to assimilate many into the regime including those nations newly added to the Reich.

Nuclear power would become the beating heart for this great regime, providing energy to millions at a fraction of cost.

As to religion, Goebbel's served to bring first all German churches and finally all European churches under state control. Dogma was altered to support the state and its goals. This revisionism saw alterations to the Old Testament which stripped out Jewish cultural history and replaced it with an Aryan motif.

The population of the Reich would grow by leaps and bounds. By 1960, the estimated population of the Reich (including those European states added through the union) stood at well over 300 million.

Over the years, Speer's power grew greater and greater as he centralized his authority. One by one he removed those gauleiters against him until all that remained were allies. In full control, the chancellor would make it law that he had the right to appoint and dismiss gauleiters at will. Speer would further undermine local authorities by having all taxes paid straight to the central government which would in turn be doled out to the local governments.

When Himmler died in 1964, Heydrich became the new Reichsfuhrer and a rift began to develop in the alliance Speer had once held with the SS. Though Germany had expanded greatly, independent states still existed such as the United States and Japan not to mention South America and Australia. This angered the Reichsfuhrer who believed that Germany should use their nuclear arsenal to force the world under their hegemony. There was also the issue of open elections. Speer believed it was time to allow for a gradual return to democracy, something many in the Party feared. Speer believed it would make the government more responsive to the people and also break up the stagnating influence of a single party with no challengers. The threat of elections would force those in government to become more dynamic and competive. It would also bring fresh voices to power. But above all, what proved the most damaging to the alliance between Speer and the SS was when it was discovered that Japan was working towards a nuclear weapon. Heydrich presented this information to Speer, advising the chancellor that Japan should serve as a warning to those who would think to challenge Germany's nuclear superiority. The Reichsfuhrer suggested that they nuke every major city in Japan destroying its industrial and cultural base and rendering it incapable of challenging them in the future. Speer was horrified at the idea. The chaos that such an act would bring. The casualties alone would be in the tens of millions. Then there was the threat of destablization throughout Asia following the fall of Japan which could threaten to spill over into German lands. Speer believed dialogue would work best.

Despite warnings from all corners, Speer believed himself safe from the Reichsfuhrer's wrath. The chancellor had the support of the military, the final arbiter of power in the Reich. He had also been gradually wittling away at SS authority, Himmler's obsession with the Final Solution and his colonies blinding him to Speer's eroding of SS authority, whether it be in factory ownership, independent funding, control over the nuclear arsenal, the dismantling of the Gestapo, or the gradual demobilization of the Waffen SS with those remaining divisions being placed under Wermacht control. By the time Heydrich had come to power, the SS had been reduced to a national police force with a foreign intelligence wing. But such a force was more than enough for Reinhard.

With the strength of the SS behind him, Heydrich launched a coup on April 20, 1965.

SOURCE: Blix, Heidi The Reluctant Chancellor

Asia 1945

2008-05-02T21:20:00.000-07:00

Europe 1945

2008-05-02T21:17:00.000-07:00

Republic of India Declared!

2008-05-02T01:42:00.000-07:00

15 August 1945 - After two years of negotiations between the British government and various factions within the country mediated by the Japanese, India has finally formally declared indpendence.

It has been a grueling two years of bargaining, arguing, and threats which at times seemed destined to end in the partition of India into two separate, and possibly warring, nations. The INC, Muslim League, and various princes all sought the advancement of their own agendas in the near chaos despite the threats their plans posed to an overarching national government. Many would say Japanese bayonets were the only thing keeping all representatives at the table.

Partition seemed the greatest threat to India throughout the past two years. Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose, the appointed President of India, had repeatedly stood against any outcome short of a whole, undivided India despite calls by Jinnah and the Muslim League for a split along religious lines. The issue of an independent Pakistan had arisen time and again as the only possible solution to future problems sure to arise between Muslims and Hindus in the future state. Many thought the divide between them was insurmountable, but Bose has proven his diplomatic skills once again.

In order to hold his fragile confederacy of states and kingdoms together, Bose has allowed certain compromises. Perhaps the most important was the consitutional clause creating a secular state. Further, to assure local rulers that he is not a tyrant, a federal system of government has been established. This has also served to mollify Jinnah, the Prime Minister, who had called for an autonomous state of Pakistan. Though short of a rump state within a state, the federal system served to empower Muslim majorities in various principalities where they hold the majority. It also guaranteed seats in Parliament for Muslims.

Bose and Jinnah celebrated together in front of the throngs of cheering supporters. Muslim and Hindu, hand in hand, the two men hope to keep India together in the years to come.

SOURCE: The Herald

Excerpt from SS Report on Diebner's Discovery

2008-05-01T22:52:00.000-07:00

On 3 March 1945, the successful detonation of an atomic bomb was accomplished near Ohrdruf, Thuringia. Its destructive capability has proven greater than earlier expected at an estimated 10 kilotons of TNT. Detonation destroyed an area roughly stretching 160 meters in diameter with varying levels of destruction beyond that and shockwaves reaching as far as 60 miles from point of impact. All 700 prisoners located on site were vaporized by the weapon. The light of the blast is beyond description. The whole area was lit by a searing light with the intensity many times that of the midday sun. It was golden, purple, violet, gray, and blue. It lit the earth with a clarity and beauty that cannot be described but must be seen to be imagined. It was death in all her majesty.

Herr Dr. Diebner has proven his hypothesis that a small, transportable atomic bomb is possible. He has already requested greater amounts of uranium and other raw materials, better facilities and equipment, as well as an increase in funding for his project. It is my opinion that such requests be granted. This is an advantage beyond any power on Earth. It must be added to our arsenal.

SOURCE: Reich Historical Archives (Recently Declassified)

John Foster Dulles

2008-04-29T22:32:00.000-07:00

John Foster Dulles - 34th President of the United States
The first president in American history never to be elected, John Foster Dulles' short term in office (12 July 1944 - 20 January 1946) is considered perhaps the most controversial in the annals of the United States.

Biography
Born in Washington, D.C., he was the son of a Presbyterian minister and attended public schools in Watertown, New York. After attending Princeton University and The George Washington University Law School he joined the New York City law firm of Sullivan & Cromwell, where he specialized in international law. He tried to join the United States Army during World War I but was rejected because of poor eyesight. Instead, Dulles received an Army commission as a Major on the War Industries Board.

Both his grandfather John W. Foster and his uncle Robert Lansing served as Secretary of State.

Political career
In 1918, Woodrow Wilson appointed Dulles as legal counsel to the United States delegation to the Versailles Peace Conference where he served under his uncle, Robert Lansing, then Secretary of State. Dulles made an early impression as a junior diplomat by clearly and forcefully arguing against imposing crushing reparations on Germany. Afterwards, he served as a member of the War Reparations Committee at the request of President Wilson. Dulles, a deeply religious man, attended numerous international conferences of churchmen during the 1920s and 1930s. In 1924, he was the defense counsel in the church trial of Rev. Harry Emerson Fosdick, who had been charged with heresy by opponents in the denomination, a case settled when Fosdick, a liberal Baptist, resigned his pulpit in the Presbyterian Church, which he had never joined. Dulles also became a partner at Sullivan & Cromwell, an international law firm. According to Karlheinz Deschner's book The Moloch, Dulles gave assets of $1 billion to the Nazi party in 1932 after Hitler's election, and according to Stephen Kinzer's 2006 book Overthrow, the firm benefited from doing business with the Nazi regime, and from 1933-1934, Dulles was a public supporter of Hitler. However, the junior partners, led by his brother Allen, were appalled by Nazi activities and threatened to revolt if Dulles did not end the firm's association with the regime. In 1935, Dulles closed Sullivan & Cromwell's Berlin office; later he would cite the closing date as 1934, no doubt in an effort to clear his reputation by shortening his involvement with Nazi Germany.

Dulles was a close associate of Thomas E. Dewey, who became the presidential candidate of the United States Republican Party in the 1940 election. During the election, Dulles served as Dewey's foreign policy adviser. Upon Dewey's election to the presidency, Dulles was appointed Secretary of State. It was Dulles who encouraged Dewey's policy of confrontation with Japan which disastrously brought German invasion.

Secretary of State
As Secretary of State, Dulles was one of the pioneers of brinkmanship. In an article written for Life Magazine in early 1941 to describe America's new aggressive approach towards Japan, Dulles defined his policy of brinkmanship: "The ability to get to the verge without getting into the war is the necessary art."

In a foreshadowing of his confrontational style of politics, Dulles received a standing ovation from Congress when, on February 9, 1941, he argued in one speech that "neutrality has increasingly become an obsolete and, except under very exceptional circumstances, it is an immoral and shortsighted conception."

In his drive to isolate Japan and unify a front against further Imperial expansion, Dulles provided some consternation and amusement to the British, Canadian, Australian, and New Zealand ambassadors by his repeated attempts to tell substantially different versions of events to them. Apparently, unbeknownst to Dulles, the men had all attended Cambridge together and followed up meetings with Dulles by comparing notes and reporting the discrepancies to their home countries.

When the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor, Dulles was not altogether surprised, stating that, "They would drive the Japs back into their caves." However, when Hitler declared war on America, many say they saw the Secretary of State at a loss for words for the first time in his life.

Presidency
Dulles' ascension to the presidency was an unexpected one. Vice-President Charles McNary died February 1944 from complications involving a brain tumor. No new vice-president was named due to Congress' inability to meet in total following repeated attacks on the capital and the war making travel nearly impossible. President Dewey would die in a plane crash, shot down by the Luftwaffe as he attempted to flee Washington D.C. shortly before it fell July 4, 1944. In the confusion following the fall of the American capital, many were unsure exactly who was next in line for presidential succession as no one was sure who was still alive. It would take a week to establish Dulles in office.

Dulles found himself confronted with a difficult situation. American forces had been largely destroyed east of the Mississippi with valuable reserves of manpower now located in German occupied territory along with the bulk of American industry. Army Group South under Colonel General Heinrich von Vietinghoff was tearing through the Dixie states with a ferocity not seen since Sherman while Guderian was consolidating the Wermacht's hold on the east coast as Rommel turned west with his sights set on Chicago.

Dulles was informed by Eisenhower, who had miraculously escaped Washington, that their hold on states east of the Mississippi were untenable and that the best course of action was to gradually withdraw via a scorched earth policy while building a defensive line from Louisiana to Minnesota. This would require the demolition of all known factories, the burning of all crops, and the destruction of bridges and railroad tracks in their retreat in order to leave nothing of value for the enemy. To the surprise of his staff, Dulles said no and instead ordered that a line of communication for possible peace talks be opened through the British.

There have been numerous debates on the exact reason for Dulles' refusal to continue the war. One point is that the plan devised by Eisenhower and the General Staff was not only barbaric (casually outlining the hundreds of thousands of casualties it would accrue while encouraging further destruction to the nation) but would prove wholly inadequate in the long run. The bulk of the American population was in German hands. The ability to raise future armies was unlikely and the industry to arm it was rapidly being lost. There was also the (perceived) threat of an attack from the west by Japan.

A second point made is that Dulles felt overwhelming guilt for having caused the war in the first place. It was his style of diplomacy which forced Japan into an aggressive posture and then drew Hitler's attention. Dulles' game of brinksmanship had killed his friend, Dewey, and nearly destroyed the country. This, coupled with the nadir of American morale, was known to have affected the president deeply. He was seen weeping when told of civilians in Georgia using private weapons trying to hold off Wermacht forces being gunned down. Other atrocities reached his ears but there was nothing he could do to stop it. Ever the religious man, he had to repent this sin of pride and end the war despite what it would do to him. He would become the martyr to save America's future. He had nearly destroyed his country. It was time to sacrifice himself that no one else need die in a war they could not win.

A third point, and the most controversial, is that Dulles had a pro-German attitude which is supported by his past. His attempts to lessen Allied punishments under the Treaty of Versailles, his dealings with Hitler and various German functionaries shortly after the Nazi rise to power, and even donations made to German politicians and businessmen raise questions as to the relationship Dulles had with Hitler and the Nazis; especially after the war when he renewed business contacts with Germany.

1 August 1944, Dulles agreed to an armistice with Germany. On October 31, a peace treaty was signed between the Third Reich and the United States whose main points recognized the following:
The United States had been the aggressor in their conflict
All territory occupied by Germany north of the Ohio River and east of the Mississippi was to remain occupied at American expense (Maine, Vermont, New Hampshire, Connecticut, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, New York, New Jersey, Maryland, Delaware, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Michigan, Indiana, Illinois, Wisconsin, and West Virginia)
The American military was to be limited to a 100,000 man standing army (with no more than 10,000 allowed east of the Mississippi River), light tanks were the only armor allowed in the American forces, a navy set at the limits of the Washington Naval Treaty, and their air force was not to employ bombers
Reparations were to be paid
German inspectors were to be allowed into American territory to ensure that the treaty was being followed
The United States was to drop all trade barriers with Germany
Recognized Germany hegemony over Canada

Dulles would later sign an armistice with Japan in early 1945 which recognized Imperial hegemony over Asia and the Pacific (including Hawaii), and returned Attu, Kiska, and Dutch Harbor to the United States thus ending the Pacific War.

The twin wars effectively over, Dulles authorized the first American elections since 1942 (national elections being hard to outright impossible in the east). Dulles quickly found himself rejected by the Republican Party for its presidential nominee. He would retire from politics branded a traitor, returning to New York to take up international law.

Legacy
Dulles' term in office draws divided opinions. There are those who say he didn't do enough, failing to exhaust every opportunity available before surrendering and stabbed America in the back. Others claim he did too much, pushing America into a war it wasn't ready for and then folding when it came time to take responsibility for it. In the Confederate States, there are many who defend Dulles. They state that Dulles saved them when Eisenhower wanted to render their lands barren and sacrifice them for their own survival.

Dulles' name opens many old wounds, the deepest being America's first loss to a foreign power.

SOURCE: Garfield, Richard American Presidents at a Glance

April 1944 - June 1944

2008-04-22T23:06:00.000-07:00

Hitler's order to secure the industrial core of America recommenced in the spring of 1944 when Rommel drove into Ohio reaching Youngstown April 10. American forces, largely National Guard units, offered little resistance as he struck northwest towards Cleveland, taking the city on April 17, before then striking south for Akron.

Guderian's drive into Indiana was just as rapid, Elkhart falling April 13, followed by Ft. Wayne on April 19. The first signs of organized American forces appeared as he approached Muncie, April 25. The VI Corps, under Major General Ernest J. Dawley, had moved east from Illinois in late March, taking up position north of Indianapolis on April 17. When news came of Guderian's march south, Dawley prepared his forces to meet him. It was patrols of the 45th Division which first encountered Wermacht troops outside Muncie on April 25. Brief gunfire was exchanged before American forces withdrew to report German troop movements.

German and American forces would skirmish over the next three days in and around Delaware County with Guderian forcing Dawley gradually southwestward. The fourth day of fighting transpired near the White River, five miles from Yorktown. The river to his rear, Dawley found himself trapped. With a lack of decent armor, only VI Corps' artillery served to deter German charges meant to drive them into the river. This was quickly solved by Guderian's panzers which sliced through the VI's infantry and overran Dawley's main guns. Suffering heavy casualties, many American soldiers dove into the White River swimming across to the southern shore while being shot at by Wermacht rifles and panzer cannons. Scores of bodies would foul the water for weeks to come, some washing up as far as ten miles downriver.

Rommel, meanwhile, had picked up his breathtaking pace reaching Marietta, OH on April 28. There he met parts of the reconstituted II Corps, now commanded by Major General Geoffrey Keyes.

Patton, the former commander of II Corps, had been "promoted" to an inactive front, commander of III Corps at the Presidio in Monterey, CA, due to his controversial dealings with his superiors and subordinates. The press had printed some of Patton's abusive correspondence with Washington greatly angering President Dewey who wouldn't bear his authority being undermined. Dewey was sure Patton had leaked the correspondence as a way to guilt him into action on a list of complaints the general had earlier sent him. To make matters worse was Patton's slapping of a soldier suffering from shell shock following the Battle of Pittsburgh. Patton's abrasive personality drove Eisenhower to move the man as far away as possible for his own good.

Major General Keyes proved an able leader though not as skilled as Rommel who rapidly punctured the American line and rolled up part of II Corps by April 30. Only Keyes deft maneuvering kept the entire II Corps from being enveloped. Part of the reason for this defeat was attributed to II Corps' armor which stood at 65%, manned largely with inexperienced tank crews that had been rushed to the front. Among these tanks was the M5 which saw its first frontline action, performing well under fire but still inadequate against German Panthers.

The Battle of Marietta would end American support for light tanks and lead to the development of medium and heavy tanks. Rommel would complete the annihilation of II Corps over the next four days leaving only 80,000 American troops between him and Washington to the east, but the German commander turned west to link up with Guderian as ordered despite a desire to gamble for the American capital.

In Indiana, Indianapolis was encircled by Guderian April 28 and taken two days later severing a vital transportation hub in a largely bloodless offensive. Guderian would then turn southeast cutting a swath through disorganized American forces, put together piecemeal from whatever was available, on his way to the Ohio border.

Rommel and Guderian would meet in Cincinnati on May 14. Though this served as a major blow to the United States, it was only the beginning of a larger offensive.

Hitler had decided to open a second front in September 1943 following the beating Rommel had taken in Pennsylvania to relieve the pressure on German forces in New England and to put renewed pressure on the American capital. The Fuhrer looked towards a landing somewhere along the Carolina coast. Goering and Raeder would aid Hitler in his planning. What the pair offered up most were doubts.

Goering informed the Fuhrer that landings anywhere south of Virginia would be unsupported by Luftwaffe aircraft, the distance being too great from their airfields in New Jersey and Pennsylvania. Raeder further warned Hitler that should the Carolina landings be successful, there was the possibility that the United States could blockade the coast using parts of the Atlantic and Pacific fleets cutting off the landing force from resupply. Up to this point, the United States had been willing to not call on the Pacific Fleet to augment their Atlantic naval forces, but the German offensive in the south could be viewed as a large enough threat to redeploy parts of the Pacific Fleet to the Atlantic, especially due to the lull that had settled over the west coast. Then there was the problem of landing and amphibious craft which were in short supply. There would need to be designs drawn up, raw materials allocated, workers found, etc. This didn't include the training necessary to prepare troops for the operation. The entire venture was not likely to happen in less than two years at best and even then it was still fraught with a myriad of threats of failure.

But Hitler would not be swayed. The very audacity of the plan, coupled with the fact that it would be the largest amphibious assault in history, mesmerized the German leader. When Raeder and Goering realized the futility of halting preparations, they tried to convince the Fuhrer to move the landing point further north to allow for air support. Hitler would not hear of it. First, the threat of American air forces would be minimal in the Carolinas. Naval reconnaissance had found only four to five squadrons scattered across the area, mostly used for training and coastal patrols. The Fuhrer was quick to point out to Raeder the fact that recent modifications to five merchant ships would provide the Kriegsmarine with additional escort carriers whose fighter complement added up to 30 Bf 109s. Added to the Graf Zeppelin's aircraft, that numbered 40 fighters placing the American to German fighter ratio at roughly around 2:1. German aircraft had proven its supremacy time and again and American air forces would be disorganized coming from several air fields and could, likely, be intercepted before they became a problem. Second, landing anywhere in Virginia was ridiculous with the American troop presence so close to Washington. The invasion force would quickly find itself bogged down by soldiers already on alert and then pushed back into the sea. An attack further south would face minimal opposition allowing for an easier push inland and would also serve to draw off forces opening Washington to the joint forces of Rommel and Guderian leading to the fall of the capital and the end of the United States as a coherent entity.

"American forces are broken," Hitler stated. "All it will take is one more bold stroke to shatter their resolve. Our forces will walk over them to everlasting victory!"

As to the problems of landing craft, Hitler ordered German forces to begin confiscating all merchant and commerical craft in the occupied areas of Canada and New England. They had until summer 1944. Speed and surprise was essential.

The initial phase of the operation, the combined Luftwaffe/Kriegsmarine assault on Newport News in November 1943, served to drive the Atlantic Fleet south. It would be followed by numerous sorties to keep the Atlantic Fleet away from the proposed landing zones and to allow for aerial reconnaissance of the region. With naval success on the American east coast, Hitler ordered plans for an amphibious landing at Charleston to be sped up. He would travel to Philadelphia to set up his American HQ to oversee the Atlantic Theater, coordinating with Rommel, Guderian, Manstein, Goering, and Raeder. Training for the landing was conducted throughout late winter/early spring.

30 May 1944, Raeder initiated the invasion heading south from New Jersey. American forces would be ill-equipped to counter the coming attack, lacking in men and materiel. The American General Staff had become used to Raeder's roaming up and down the east coast over the past year in what was perceived as a useless blockade. Any threat the German Admiral offered, such as shelling of coastal ports, had been kept at bay by coastal aircraft which had markedly increased in northern Virginia. Also, after having overreacted to the joint Luftwaffe and Kriegsmarine attack on Newport News, and with Rommel and Guderian to their west, American commanders were not willing to divert troops to the Carolina shores. In fact, they had diverted troops north to defend against a renewed drive by the Wermacht on Washington. The American Midwest and Washington took priority. Thus, South Carolina was not prepared for the German forces that stormed her shores, having been stripped of a vast amount of divisional strength and mostly used as a training area.

The Battle of Charleston began at 0300, June 6, with a naval barrage accompanied by bombing runs by the Graf Zeppelin's Ju-87s which would render the air strips at Myrtle Beach and Charleston Army Air Fields useless, grounding their squadrons and stripping air supremacy from American forces.
121,000 Wermacht troops ran ashore over the next five hours starting at 0630 in a motley collection of cruise ships, steamers, and other craft overwhelming limited American resistance in what quickly became a debacle for the American High Command. By the time USAAF air support could be called from nearby air fields in Florence and Charlotte, German troops had secured their beachheads and were driving inland. When USAAF forces arrived on the scene, what they found was mass panic. Numerous civilians clogged the roads trying to escape the German drive. What they did not know was that aircraft from the Graf Zeppelin and her escort carriers had been strafing and bombing American civilians in their exodus causing mass panic.

The German invasion of Charleston was only part of the Operation. Following the success of their spring campaign, Rommel and Guderian used the bulk of their forces to stab into West Virginia in a drive aimed at Washington itself meant to divert troops and attention away from South Carolina prior to the amphibious landings. This drive commenced in mid-May and reached as far as Moorefield, WV by June 6. Surprised by the ease of their eastward assault, Rommel and Guderian decided to press further than planned. The first line of defenses surrounding Washington would be shattered three days later.

Washington was in a panic. They had no immediate forces to counter the invasion in South Carolina, Rommel was less than thirty miles away, and the threat of losing the entire east coast was fast becoming a reality. Many voiced the opinion that Washington should be abandoned so that American forces could then focus on crushing the German forces at Charleston while maintaining a coherent defense against German forces from the north. President Dewey refused to abandon the capital citing its symbolic nature. Instead, he ordered that all forces in Virginia be focused on defending the capital while the fleet was to solve the problem in Carolina. Parts of the Pacific Fleet would be diverted east in the weeks to come while the bulk of the Atlantic Fleet was told to move north and engage the Kriegsmarine.

Admiral King issued the command for the Atlantic Fleet to remove the Kriegsmarine from the Carolina coast that the Wermacht in Charleston could be cut off and captured by I Corps. The decisive battle of the Atlantic unfolded June 12 between the Atlantic Fleet and the Kriegsmarine. Raeder was ordered by Hitler himself to hold his position at all costs. Raeder's naval aviators held the sky against American aircraft. The majority of the USAAF pilots were still trainees and quickly overwhelmed by the German aces who tore them apart. The two navies pounded one another across the sea taking numerous casualties. While Ju 87s and Fi 167s rained fire from above, Uboats attacked from the depths. Le Malin class destroyers glided through the churning waters blasting holes in American naval craft with elegant efficiency. Fiery pyres littered the ocean blazing brightly along the horizon.
American naval forces fought on despite their losses, realizing that South Carolina was likely lost if they retreated. Their determination was heroic and shocking to the German sailors who witnessed it. One remarkable event was the ramming of an American cruiser into one of the German escort carriers. Despite their efforts, they were overcome by the Kriegsmarine. Raeder pressed in for the kill virtually decimating the remains of the Atlantic Fleet as it finally turned to retreat south. The Grand Admiral would send his Uboats after them as he took up position off the coast.

SOURCE: Wilder, George Hitler's Great Gamble: The Amphibious Invasion of Charleston

Labour Wins!

2008-04-22T00:52:00.000-07:00

24 March 1944 - Clement Atlee's Labour Party has won the general election with a landslide victory and a controlling 145 seats. This was not an unexpected defeat for the Conservatives. With the economic downturn, the loss of India, and two military defeats, their time in office was numbered.

Lord Halifax knew as much, facing a vote of no confidence following the armistice signed with Japan. Rather than endure the humiliation, Halifax set elections and then declared his retirement from politics. Reviled by some, pitied by others, Lord Halifax knew he was hampering his party and bowed out as gracefully as he could.

The Labour Party ran on promises to create full employment, a tax funded universal National Health Service, and a cradle-to-grave welfare state, with the sensational campaign message of 'let us face the future.'

This was the first election in which Labour gained a majority of seats, and also the first time it won a plurality of votes. If it had won another 68,767 or 0.3% of votes it would have had over 50% of all those cast: the closest any party has come a majority of all votes since 1931.

SOURCE: The Herald

United States - 1944

2008-04-22T00:51:00.000-07:00

Fall 1943 - Spring 1944

2008-04-21T22:41:00.000-07:00

Following Rommel's pause to regroup in late October, America quickly set to work gathering forces for a counterattack. It was not soon coming. Armor and air were largely wrecked and rapidly being rebuilt while reserves of trained men were practically exhausted whether through injury, death, or capture following the failed campaigns against Rommel and Guderian, or were tied up elsewhere in garrison positions. The lack of troops was due to Garner's refusal to fund more than 8 divisions during his term. Dewey had fought to ramp up training in the early days of his administration but had only managed roughly 50 divisions by 1943.

This limitation of trained soldiers created problems. First there was the necessity of training, these men needed for cadres to prepare the next crop for battle. Second was the issue of keeping parts of the nation secure which led into the third, and most problematic, issue. Many regions, especially the West Coast, were against diverting troops from their borders. Legislators and Governors from California to Washington State lobbied to keep a sizable troop presence following numerous attacks by the Japanese on military installations, such as Ft. Stevens in Oregon, civilian facilities like those at Goleta, CA, or the largely undefended forests of the Pacific Northwest. Only luck had prevented a catastrophe thus far and many feared, should American forces be withdrawn, the Japs would pour across their shores much like they had at Hawaii, a traumatic event still recent in the minds of Americans. Hysteria gripped California worst of all with many believing an invasion was at most only weeks away. Their efforts served to hamper military operations in the country. In the end, Dewey was forced to draw troops from the relatively secure south.

Another problem which was becoming increasingly apparent was a drop in industrial output. The Germans had managed to knock out roughly one third of America's shipyards, one half of steel production, and were close to seizing the manufacturing core of heavy machinery in the country in its entirety. Manpower issues also arose as nearly every white male was pressed into uniform. Women and blacks were becoming the norm in factories and working hours were being extended, sometimes to the point that accidents became a regular occurrence. In the south, there was considerable anger that black men should work in close proximity to white women leading to strained tensions. This was not helped by the perception of southern troops that they were being singled out and shipped north as fodder.

As troops were being moved north for an offensive against Rommel, American plans were largely disrupted by Raeder and Goering's joint air/naval effort in mid-November on the coast of Virginia. Dewey's commanders feared it was the beginning of an amphibious landing meant to open a second front and quickly rerouted troops to the Atlantic shore. Despite this military presence, the Luftwaffe and Kriegsmarine left the naval yards at Newport News in ruins. The Kriegsmarine would remain a constant presence on America's East Coast, sometimes venturing as far south as the Carolinas disrupting American shipping and shelling cities. American commanders would wait until early January before once more planning for an offensive north.

Meanwhile, Goering turned his attention to Washington itself. Aerial bombings became the norm as American leaders debated whether or not to remain in the capital. Some believed the President should withdraw either south or west to safer territory to conduct the war. Dewey would not be swayed. If American citizens were to see him retreat, it would be disastrous for morale. American soldiers were used to ring the city against the expected German approach. They spent months digging fortifications.

To the north, German forces were becoming irritated with guerilla activity in their rear. American and Canadian partisans continually threatened their thinly stretched supply lines throughout the autumn and winter of 1943. What these partisans had not counted on were the brutal methods Heydrich would use to silence them. In one of the darker moments of the Atlantic War, Heydrich had the entire town of Malone, NY executed for aiding and housing partisans responsible for the murder of an SS man. Shock traveled throughout the state. Though many vowed vengeance, partisan activity noticeably dropped in the short term. This was followed by an intense search and seizure of all weapons from civilians in the occupied areas with threats of draconian punishment if any weapons were not registered and turned over to SS authorities. Heydrich also took to starving non-cooperative regions. This was not simply done to punish the locals but also because food stocks were not adequate for the occupied areas. German needs came first, the rest rationed amongst the populace. Many starved to death in the bleak winter of 43.

One shocking development that began in New England was American citizens of German heritage, both born and naturalized, stepping forward to join SS forces as valuable liasion officers. Of course, many of these men had been interned at the beginning of the war as security threats only to be later freed by Wermacht forces. Urged on by Kuhn, the appointed American leader of occupied America, they willingly joined the movement though their numbers were mostly in the hundreds. This "treasonous activity", as well as collaboration among the populace with their German occupiers, served to divide communities as no one knew who to trust.

A major blow for the American effort was also received in early 1944 when the United Kingdom formerly signed an armistice with the Japanese Empire. With their base in India lost, economic setbacks at home, and pressure on the domestic front over losses both territorial and human, PM Wood was forced to sue for terms. Australia would condemn Wood as a traitor for abandoning the war effort. With Britain out of the war and their lifeline to America cut off, many Aussies feared an invasion by Japan was soon to come.

What the Australians did not know was that, for all intents and purposes, Japan was through with the war. With peace achieved following the collapse of Chiang Kai-Shek's forces, Vlassov's truce, and Halifax's armistice, Japan's entire western border was safe. They held hegemony over a large swath of Siberia, China proper, Southwest Asia, and the Pacific as well as had an ally in India. Australia did not have the strength to force them back from New Guinea, and the United States was embroiled in a continental war with Germany. Also, Japan had found its shipping stretched to the limit and its troops too thinly distributed to even think of yet another invasion. There was a large enough problem holding what they now had. There were the aerial and naval attacks on Australia and the United States but these were to put pressure on both governments to sue for peace.

By April 1944, Rommel and Guderian were ready to resume their offenses aimed at meeting in Cincinnati.

SOURCE: Thackeray, Raymond The Eye of the Storm: The Lull in the American Campaign

Fritz Kuhn - Leader of America

2008-04-20T02:30:00.000-07:00

14 December 1943 - Alongside Quisling and Petain, one may also add Fritz Kuhn. A naturalized citizen, the leader of the American Bund of National Socialism has been annointed leader of occupied America. Winner of the Iron Cross in the Great War and one of the most feared men in the United States, this figure has risen to challenge President Dewey's role as leader of our nation. Already he has declared his intent to inter all Jews, Blacks, and other "subhumans" for use as slave labor to ensure the victory of Hitler in America and to strengthen future generations. He has also given his consent to the Nazis seizure of factories to produce war materiel.

President Dewey and Congress have declared Kuhn a traitor and vow to capture and execute the collaborationist.

SOURCE: Miami Herald

Japanese to be Interned

2008-04-18T22:25:00.000-07:00

14 December 1943 - Following the treasonous turn of the Nissei in Hawaii, President Dewey has authorized the internment of all Japanese within American borders. Congress lauded his decision, saying it would make America safer.

In the past, President Dewey had refused to sign such a bill stating that it "only served to divide rather than unite the nation in these dire times." The president did concede to legislation requiring the registration of all Japanese citizens with local law enforcement as a precautionary measure back in 1942. Congress had repeatedly stated that this was not enough.

With the Imperial Navy so close to our shores, there has been increased fear of Japanese invasion on the west coast. Anonymous reports of strange aircraft in California have only heightened the hysteria.

A large majority of America has come to doubt the patriotism of Japanese citizens, seeing potential spies in their midst. One has only to look to those collaborating with Imperial troops in Hawaii to understand this mistrust.

Ten camps have been planned for the relocation effort. 110,000 Japanese are expected to be transported in the coming months.

SOURCE: Courier-Journal

The Invasion of Hawaii

2008-04-18T15:29:00.000-07:00

With the fall of China in mid-October, the Japanese were finally willing to commit to a full scale invasion of Hawaii. By December 1943, Japan initiated its assault. With fuel stocks depleted, the USAAF was unable to challenge Japanese aircraft as it soared over the islands strafing American forces, defending the Japanese landings. Oahu was first. The US Army's emaciated soldiers failed to hold back the charging Imperial troops. Pushing inland, Japanese soldiers discovered atrocities. Tales of cannibalism were related to the Japanese by Nissei who had been rounded up in camps and systematically butchered to feed the citizens. They also spoke of being beaten by American soldiers and used as slave labor to haul around equipment when fuel had run out. For the smallest offense, many were shot point blank. Others were raped. Imperial troops were quick in capturing and executing every American soldier they could find. They would also commit violent acts of murder and rape against the white civilian inhabitants as retribution.
With Oahu in their hands, and the sad state of American forces revealed, Japanese forces expanded their operations seizing the remainder of the chain throughout the end of December. Plans were drawn up to begin rebuilding the former naval installations. The Nissei became willing supporters of the Japanese, renouncing their American citizenship following the vile treatment they had received at the hands of American forces. The rays of the Imperial standard extended further eastward.

SOURCE: Yoshi, Hiramato Shores of Blood: The Atrocities of Hawaii

The Fall of Chiang Kai-Shek

2008-04-18T15:28:00.000-07:00

By October, the combined forces of the Sichuan Clique and Japanese forces had managed to shatter the Kuomintang Army and capture Chiang Kai-Shek. Wang Jingwei offered positions in the Provisional Government to the Sichuan Clique comparable to those they had had under Chiang with added benefits which they were quick to accept.
Chiang was tried and found guilty of treason to the Chinese state. He would be executed November 27, 1943.

With the Provisional Government now in full control of the country, Wang Jingwei signed a treaty with Japan recognizing Manchukuo, Menjiang, the Xinjiang Republic, and numerous trade policies which favored the Japanese Empire. It also allowed for Japanese occupation at key points throughout China and limited China's military size and composition.

The communists under Mao would struggle on though without military aid they found their support faltering. The Japanese and Provisional forces destroyed every village suspected of helping the communists, killing hundreds of thousands and eroding all support for the guerillas until Mao would be captured in 1945, given up by a traitor in his own ranks.

SOURCE: Liu Bao The Fall of the Kuomintang

The German Drive for Pittsburgh and Detroit

2008-04-18T13:47:00.000-07:00

By the close of August 1943, the American pocket centered around Boston had been conquered putting virtually all of New England under German occupation. Rommel took the next few weeks to rest and resupply for the drive on Pittsburgh. Rommel's drive was slated for September 16, to be joined by a simultaneous drive south by Guderian aimed at Toronto and then Detroit.

When their drives commenced, Guderian discovered a distinct stiffening of Allied forces the further south he went. Allied forces had used the lull to build up their defenses. This was further aided by terrain. As the land narrowed at the approach of the Great Lakes, the Allies were able to concentrate their forces into tighter and tighter formations which would negate German maneuver. Toronto fell within the first week of Guderian's drive. After that initial victory, it was a slow, steady push into Allied territory.

Rommel made rapid progress through Northern and Central New Jersey, capturing Newark and then advancing into Pennsylvania within five days. Rommel diverted south, taking Philadelphia within the week and pocketing Southern New Jersey before moving west toward Pittsburgh, splitting off part of his forces to finish off what American forces remained centered around Atlantic City. The bulk of his forces would cross the Susquehanna River three days later. Patton waited at Harrisburg. The battle that followed lasted three days (October 3-6), Patton ultimately making a fighting retreat.

In Canada, Guderian ground his way through Allied lines. Paratroopers were used to secure the Blue Water Bridge against demolition. German losses were heavy as they struggled to hold onto the bridge against fierce American/Canadian assaults. When Guderian arrived, only one company remained of the battalion that had originally been dropped. The German position was further compromised by American naval forces sailing across the Great Lakes into the St. Clair River, firing at will on Guderian's forces and attempting to destroy the bridge the Wermacht were pouring across. Hundreds of Luftwaffe aircraft soared through the sky scoring hit upon hit on the naval aircraft lighting the night sky with pillars of flame. Veterans would later call it one of the most nightmarish days in the war. Death was everwhere, the cold autumn wind lashing the combatants. The bridge collapsed under repeated naval fire slowing the German drive by a week and effectively ending the battle. Guderian's engineers would work feverishly to repair the bridge achieving miraculous progress.

Tens of thousands of American troops rushed to halt Guderian's renewed thrust toward Detroit including naval recruits training on the Great Lakes. The ferocity of American attacks shocked Guderian who authorized the use of flamethrowers to push back Allied assaults. It was largely a disorganized affair, American forces accepting anyone able to carry a rifle into their ranks. But with the majority of American armor committed to Pennsylvania, Guderian rode down all opposition. Detroit fell on October 16. Guderian would mop up American forces throughout Eastern Michigan over the next month while preparing a drive on Indianapolis.

Rommel sped west against minimal opposition toward Pittsburgh. He reached the outskirts of the city on October 18. Once more, Patton waited for him. The Battle of Pittsburgh stretched for a week. An advantage Patton had that he had lacked in previous engagements with Rommel was air support. He had gathered every available squadron he could find after browbeating his way up the chain of command until he reached Eisenhower himself. The threat of losing nearly half of American steel production was enough to convince Allied commanders of Patton's need for aircraft and further supply. Across the sky and over the ground, German and Allied forces clashed shaking the very foundations of the Earth. With numerical superiority, Patton willingly sent wave after wave at Rommel from all sides. Planes fell across the field of battle, streaking like falling stars across the horizon. One Luftwaffe pilot crashed spectacularly into Loew's Penn Theater setting off a minor fire in the city. Rommel himself would recount in his memoirs "It was the most hellish experience of my life. It was as if the sky were falling and hell itself were opeing up, American soldiers screaming like demons as they ran toward us. Their eyes flared with hate."

When the tide of battle began to shift, Patton refused to retreat. If Pittsburgh were to fall, the blow to America would be enormous. He gambled everything, committing his reserves rather than retreating once again. Casualties were enormous for both sides. In the end, the battle came down to armor and air. The Luftwaffe gradually regained control of the sky, setting their sights on American ground forces. Patton's armor had been decimated by frequent charges at Rommel's lines. Despite his repeated shots, Wermacht forces held with their 88s. Now Rommel was ready to unleash his reserve. Patton found himself encircled. Only at great effort and loss of life did he manage to escape with a small contingent. The II Corps was no more.

Despite victory, Rommel's battle strength was shattered. He was left at 40% strength in armor and had suffered well over 50% casualties. He would not be ready for offensive operations for well over two months. Despite the losses, Hitler was ecstatic. The core of American steel was seized and a vast swath of American industry now lay in German hands or was destroyed. Further, Washington D.C. was now in striking range by air.

Despite their animosity, Raeder and Goering began planning a joint air/naval offensive aimed at the Newport News Naval Yards and Washington. With Luftwaffe support, the Kriegsmarine would once more venture into waters off Virginia in order to destroy the naval yard and then move on to attack America's capital. Occupation was not the goal. Destruction and fear were. With air reserves spent on the defense of Pittsburgh, all Washington had to defend itself was the weak Atlantic Fleet.

SOURCE: Williams, Trent Through the Gates of Hell: Autumn 1943

Sichuan Clique Switches Sides!

2008-04-16T23:10:00.001-07:00

21 September 1943 - The Sichuan Army has parted ways with Chiang Kai-shek threatening to bring down Nationalist forces in China. Representing over a quarter of Nationalist forces, the Sichuan Army broke from Nationalist ranks via an alliance between faction leaders Yang Sen, Liu Wenhui, Deng Xihou, and Tian Songyao. All had grown tired and bitter over the three sided war devastating China and Chiang's handling of domestic affairs. With the United States suffering through a war on two fronts, the British retreating from India, and all hope of supply gone, the Sichuan Clique had finally had enough. There had been grumbling over the decline in their independence under Chiang and rumors that the Nationalist leader had poisoned one of their own, Liu Xiang, in order to exert greater control over Sichuan Province.

Chiang Kai-shek finds himself in a desperate battle to hold onto Sichuan. There are fears that if he allows one ally to desert him, others will follow.

Wang Jingwei has already voiced his support for Sichuan Province to join his Provisional Government and to oust the rebellious Chiang. Japanese, Mengjiang, and Provisional Chinese forces have begun an assault south through eastern Gansu into Sichuan in what many believe to be the final showdown between Japanese and Chinese forces. Should Sichuan fall, Chiang's capital, Chengdu, would fall with it and possibly spell the end of organized Kuomintang resistance.

SOURCE: The Daily Telegraph

The Twin German Drives and an Atlantic Threat

2008-04-15T21:03:00.000-07:00

Adolf Hitler flew to the Wermacht's Canadian HQ in March 1943 to meet with Field Marshal von Manstein to discuss the future of their American campaign. With American forces in disarray, Manstein was ordered by Hitler to split his forces for a drive west to capture Ottawa and a drive south towards New York City. Hitler believed that the fall of their capital would knock the Candians out of the war while the capture of NYC would serve a heavy blow to the American economy and cut off Massachussetts, Connecticut, and Rhode Island which the Kriegsmarine could then effectively blockade. A subsequent use for Ottawa was for an eventual drive south past Toronto into Michigan aimed at Detroit. As to the future of the New York drive, Hitler intended to first mop up American forces in Massachussetts, Connecticut, and Rhode Island and then push southwest toward Pittsburgh.

Manstein balked at splitting his forces when success was being achieved along the east coast. Manstein instead wanted to focus on a drive south aimed at Pittsburgh and then west into Ohio, Indiana, and finally Michigan. Hitler retorted that his plan was one giant pincer movement rather than a vulnerable scythe-like sweep. With success on the east coast and success in Michigan, the Wermacht could envelop Indiana and Ohio without a risk to its flanks. Also, Hitler's plan allowed for Detroit being captured early depriving America of one of its most important industrial and transportation hubs. It would also create a large pocket preventing a sizable number of American forces from escaping across the Mississippi River. Manstein would relent in the face of Hitler's adamant views. Rommel would be tasked with the drive south aimed at New York and then Pittsburgh. The drive west was given to Guderian. Manstein did this despite the protests of the General Staff. He realized the talents of Guderian and was not going to have them squandered by sycophants.

Loathed by the OKH for his independent streak and blunt language, Guderian had garned few allies in the upper echelons of German military authority. But the man got results and that was enough to keep his detractors at bay though promotion was another problem. Guderian realized the opportunity Manstein had given him and seized it with great enthusiasm. At the outset of his drive west, Guderian was surprised at the rapid progress he made. Canadian and American forces proved unable to counter his drive, their tanks poorly designed and their leadership amateurish. He would describe Allied battle techniques as blunt, savage, and simple using numbers to overwhelm and counter his forces when they could not outthink him. He also cited their lack of discipline, some units effectively crumbling at the thundering advance of his panzers. If not for supply problems, Guderian stated he could have taken Ottawa in two months. Instead, he would reach the Canadian capital by late August. PM King would declare it an open city. Following news of the Blitz in New York, King refused to have Ottawa's citizens suffer while the city was reduced to ruins. Hitler heaped great praise and awards on Guderian for his successful drive. The Fuhrer's lauding quickly turned to condemnation when PM King declared Canada would fight on.
Rommel's drive into the United States, meanwhile, intially met with the same success as Guderian. Maine, New Hampshire, and Vermont fell within a month as Rommel and his Ghost Divisions stormed through New England. He entered New York via Granville on May 12. Meanwhile, there was a shake up of command in the American Army ranks.

Following the defeats of the U.S. II Corps by the Wermacht in the Canadian Campaign, General Dwight D. "Ike" Eisenhower wanted an assessment of the corps. After the losses of New Brunswick and the retreat into Maine, Eisenhower sent Major-General Omar Bradley to observe the conditions of the II Corps operationally.

On 16 April 1943, as a result of Bradley's report, Patton replaced Major-General Lloyd Fredendall as commander of the II Corps. Patton was also promoted to Lieutenant-General. Soon thereafter, Patton had Bradley reassigned to his Corps Command as deputy commander.

Tough in his training, Patton was generally unpopular with his troops. However, they preferred to serve with him because they thought he was their best chance to get home alive. US officers had noted the "softness" and lack of discipline in the II Corps under Fredendall. Patton required all personnel to wear steel helmets, even physicians in the operating wards, and required his troops to wear the unpopular lace-up leggings and neckties. A system of fines was introduced to ensure all personnel shaved daily and observed other uniform requirements. While these measures did not make Patton popular, they did tend to restore a sense of discipline and unit pride that may have been missing earlier. In a play on his nickname, troops joked that it was "his guts and our blood".

The discipline Patton required paid off quickly. Realizing Rommel's willingness to drive ahead brashly, Patton had his troops surrender ground in Maine, New Hampshire, and Vermont to stretch Rommel's supply line, drawing him in and leaving him vulnerable on the flanks. By mid-May 1943, the counter-offensive of the U.S. II Corps began. At the Battle of Troy, Rommel was surprised by American forces. Patton pressed from the northwest threatening Rommel's flank using prototype bazookas to help him even the odds against German panzers, sowing confusion among the Wermacht's ranks. Only desperate action, personally led by himself, prevented Rommel from being cut off. The use of the 88s withering fire barely forced American armor back, sometimes at a distance of only fifty yards in what amounted to virtual hand to hand fighting. Patton sent wave after wave against the German line threatening a breakthrough at several points. Patton's success would be cut short. Luftwaffe forces were diverted from their assault on New York City to aid Rommel. With total air supremacy, the Luftwaffe straffed II Corps mercilessly sending the American drive into disarray. Patton would become legendary for standing up in his jeep at the approach of a Messerschmitt Bf 109 and pulling his pistol in a showdown. Soldiers watched in awe as the plane missed, Patton firing and cursing the pilot as he soared away.

Reluctantly, Patton withdrew to reorganize and plan. Rommel gained a great deal of respect for the general who blunted his drive and the American troops who proved their willingness and ability to fight. The German commander would not underestimate American military strength again.

Over the next two months, the generals would spar throughout New York until a decisive showdown in July at the Battle of New York, ten miles from the Bronx. Once more, air supremacy proved the deciding factor as Patton's forces were battered from above and by Rommel's forces across the field. II Corps would limp into New Jersey at only 50% strength. Patton became infamous in Washington for his missives demanding the USAAF develop something capable of "covering his ass" because he was tired of "Goering's fairies whipping it while he was trying to win a war."

President Dewey and his commanders had problems beyond Patton's. The Kriegsmarine had become emboldened by Admiral King's stretching of the American Atlantic Fleet along the East Coast. Grand Admiral Raeder was determined to seize control of the East Coast in order to both prevent the resurgence of American naval might, which was inevitable unless their ports and shipyards were either captured or destroyed, and to steal Hitler's attention away from Goering's posturing over the Luftwaffe's importance in razing NYC and saving Rommel's drive from defeat.
Raeder massed a strike force and made for New Jersey. Included in this group was the Graf Zeppelin which had recently arrived. Raeder's intent was to cut off King's northern fleet and decimate it before moving south to Virginia where he intended to draw off more of the Atlantic Fleet. Hitting so close to the capital of the United States would not only shake American resolve, it would also shut Goering up. Likewise, with the Graf Zeppelin, Raeder hoped to show the effectiveness of carriers to the Fuhrer in the hopes of reopening the Flugzeugträger program. He would then withdraw back to German controlled waters for a blockade of New England.

The first phase of Raeder's plan went perfectly. July 8, 1943, outnumbered and caught off guard, American naval craft north of Cape May were completely decimated. Raeder made excellent use of the Graf Zeppelin's aircraft for reconaissance and attack as well as Uboats to confuse American forces. Two American destroyers were sunk before Raeder's battleships even came within range. The sole survivor of the initial attack, the USS New York, was sunk as she fled south. Massachussetts, Rhode Island, and Connecticut were essentially cut off for Rommel's eventual invasion.

Shock traveled throughout Washington. No one had expected the Kriegsmarine to make a move south so soon. Admiral King immediately called all available ships north to guard the capital. He also had all available aircraft put on alert.

Raeder, realizing the threat of American coastal aircraft, sought to draw the Atlantic Fleet away from Virginia. He shelled Dover, DE July 14 in order to draw King's attention. American aircraft did little damage as the Kriegsmarine retreated to open waters shortly after the opening salvos. A few days later, Raeder shelled Georgetown, DE. Once more, American aircraft did little damage as the Kriegsmarine slipped away. These hit and run missions would continue for the next two weeks sending citizens in the region into hysterics, as Raeder intended. He knew public pressure would eventually force the United States to respond.

By the end of July, Admiral King had gathered enough of the Atlantic Fleet together to push northward under Rear Admiral Arthur L. Bristol. He was given orders by King to find and, if possible, destroy the Kriegsmarine's strike force in detail. Should such occur, Bristol was given permission to venture north to relieve Massachussetts and attempt to disrupt the German's North Atlantic supply line. Only one aircraft carrier, USS Ranger, accompanied the American naval support force.

A picket line of Uboats off the coast of Delaware noticed the support force heading north and shadowed them, relaying information when possible to Raeder.

August 5, 1943, Raeder decided it was time to meet the enemy. He launched his entire complement of 20 Fieseler Fi 167 torpedo bombers and 20 Junkers Ju 87 dive bombers escorted by 10 Messerschmitt Bf 109 fighters to seek out and destroy the USS Ranger as well as other parts of the Atlantic Fleet. The USS Ranger took priority.

The Graf Zeppelin's aircraft found the USS Ranger at 0714 hours. German aircraft caught the American force by surprise, hidden by the glare of the rising sun. A handful of American aircraft launched before the Kriegmarine's bombers arrived. Within half an hour the Ranger was a smoking wreck, taking on water, her flight deck pitted and useless. The German aircraft would also score hits on several other ships before returning to the Graf Zeppelin to rearm. They had suffered 2 Fi 167 dive bombers as casualties. All American naval aircraft were lost. The sky was Raeder's and he approached the support force for the kill.

What followed was the equivalent of a slugging match between the two forces. Though both fleets were roughly comparable, Raeder's aircraft tilted the balance. After suffering the loss of two cruisers and a destroyer, the Atlantic Fleet was ordered to withdraw back to Virginia. Raeder pursued them, sinking the battleship USS Texas, until the threat of coastal aircraft forced him to retreat.

The Atlantic Fleet suffered a bloody nose and would not resume offensive operations. Raeder, meanwhile, received accolades from the Fuhrer who was more than willing to begin the building of new carriers after the demonstration raeder had provided. Hitler also acceded to Raeder's opinion that the naval arm of the Luftwaffe should come under Raeder's command, citing difficulties had during the Atlantic campaign of trying to communicate with Luftwaffe commanders on the mainland. Goering fumed but had to accept it.

SOURCE: Klum, Roolf Raeder: Father of the Kriegsmarine

Speer's Bold Plan

2008-04-11T23:21:00.000-07:00

Armaments Minister since February 1942, Albert Speer worked wonders with a German industrial sector rife with waste. He found himself incessantly hindered by party politics and a lack of cooperation from the Nazi hierarchy. Nevertheless, by slowly centralising almost all industry control and cutting through the dense bureaucracy, he succeeded in multiplying war production.

Yet even the miracles Speer worked with the German economy could not solve the problem facing the Wermacht in North America. With the supply line so long and the campaign so broad, deficiencies in parts and ammunition began to grow.

Part of the problem was transport. Ships were being used to ferry soldiers to Germany as fast as they could placing a limit on the amount of supplies that could be shipped. The same was to be said of air transport. Another piece of the puzzle was labor. With so many men being called up, factories found themselves emptied of workers. There was also the issue of the American campaign itself. Terrain was rugged and the kilometers traveled vast taking a toll on German panzers, personnel carriers, and other transports.

Innovative solutions arose at the local level. Many commanders ordered their men to forage for food when supplies were late in coming. Local populations were also made use of for supply issues such as flat tires, mechanical parts, and fuel. Some civilian vehicles were even pressed into German service.

The labor issue was another matter. Initially, Speer accepted Himmler's offer and made use of foreign as well as forced labor to fill in the gap. Even then, the immense demand of the home consumer economy (which Hitler refused to sacrifice) coupled with the massive campaign in America was too much for the German industrial sector to handle.

It was then that an idea came to the Armaments Minister. Some of the land conquered in Eastern Canada as well as parts of Northeastern America had factories. Why not press them into service? The factories themselves would have to be retooled, but to have an industrial base so close would shorten the delivery time of parts and increase German production. They need not be used for sensitive items such as aircraft, panzers, or troop weapons but they could be used to manufacture parts and ammunition. The only question was who were to work in those factories? Surely, the Canadians and Americans would not willingly aid the fight against their nations. Yet the thought of transporting labor from Europe to America also seemed preposterous. Once more, Himmler offered to help in the situation. He tasked Reinhard Heydrich with organizing occupied America into a productive contributor of the Third Reich.

Heydrich would arrive in Saint John on 13 April 1943. Shortly thereafter, SS would follow. They placed all conquered American lands under their administration. They would go through official records and draw up plans on how to reorganize the territory. Within a month they acted. Land was taken from the local populace for camps and factories deemed adequate seized. To fill these, Heydrich ordered the use of prisoners of war in the factories. When these men refused to work, Heydrich was quick to cut their rations, torture, and execute them one by one until they agreed to take their stations. Within six months, Heydrich had accomplished his goals.

SOURCE: Wright, Herbert Traitors to Their Nation: The Economics of War

The Siege of Hawaii

2008-04-11T22:54:00.000-07:00

By December 1942, Japanese forces had successfully reached and begun to blockade the Hawaiian Islands after a skirmish that saw the remnants of the American Pacific Fleet retreat to San Francisco. Following the Battle of Midway, American naval power in the Pacific was at its nadir and unable (some would say unwilling) to hold back the advancing Imperial Fleet of Japan.

Over the next two months, Japan worked at cutting Hawaii's supply lines and eroding its military capabilities. Japanese Zeroes battled a desperate American USAAF. Though they fought valiantly, the American pilots would eventually succumb not due to Japanese superiority but to a lack of fuel and parts. Once air supremacy had been established, the Japanese began to bomb every military target they could find. Special importance was placed on Pearl Harbor's fuel storage, maintenance, and dry dock facilities. The noose became tighter.

An American naval response to lift the siege was not to be had. With the German campaign raging along the east coast and the successful Nazi attack on the Panama Canal, the American fleet was simply not able to be everywhere it needed to be. Dewey reluctantly left Hawaii to its fate as the country rushed to rebuild the shattered Pacific Fleet.

Food supplies on the islands were largely gone by early June 1943. The population of the islands was too big to support natively. Other supplies, such as medical, became scarce leading to a rise in deaths from infection. Black outs became common, the power plants systematically destroyed by the IJN, though often rebuilt with what materials Hawaiians could scrounge up.

The situation would become strained. Some citizens grumbled over the fact that the Army got precedence when it came to food stocks, sometimes forcibly expropriating food at rifle point. Others wanted the Japanese population (Nissei), locked up fearing they were working with the enemy. One radical idea was to use the Nissei as a bargaining chip with the IJN, using them as hostages for food, fuel, and supplies.

Starvation was a cruel weapon the Japanese were all too willing to use. After the death toll of the Midway invasion, the Japanese were not willing to attempt a landing on another island and relive the horrific experience. They were inclined to grind down American forces and then simply step over their emaciated bodies.

SOURCE: Yamauchi, Minoru The Siege of Hawaii

The Royal Indian Navy Mutiny

2008-04-10T23:29:00.000-07:00

The Royal Indian Navy mutiny (also called the Bombay Mutiny) encompassed a total strike and subsequent mutiny by Indian sailors of the Royal Indian Navy on board ship and shore establishments at Bombay harbour on 18 June 1943. From the initial flashpoint in Bombay, the mutiny spread and found support throughout British India, from Karachi to Calcutta and ultimately came to involve 78 ships, 20 shore establishments and 20,000 sailors.

The RIN Mutiny started as a strike by ratings of the Royal Indian Navy on 18 June in protest against general conditions. The immediate issue of the mutiny was conditions and food, but there were more fundamental matters such as racist behaviour by Royal Navy personnel towards Indian sailors, and disciplinary measures being taken against anyone demonstrating pro-nationalist sympathies. The strike found immense support among the Indian population, already gripped by the stories of the Indian National Army. The actions of the mutineers were supported by demonstrations which included a one-day general strike in Bombay. The strike spread to other cities, and was joined by the Royal Indian Air Force and local police forces. Naval officers and men began calling themselves the "Indian National Navy" and offered left-handed salutes to British officers. At some places, NCOs in the British Indian Army ignored and defied orders from British superiors. In Madras and Pune, the British garrisons had to face revolts within the ranks of the Indian Army. Widespread rioting took place from Karachi to Calcutta. Notably, the mutinying ships hoisted two flags tied together — those of the Congress and the Muslim League, signifying the unity and demarginalisation of communal issues among the mutineers.

The mutiny was initiated by the ratings of Indian Navy on 18 June 1943. It was a reaction to the treatment meted out to ratings in general and the lack of service facilities in particular. On 16 May 1943, a contingent of 67 ratings of various branches arrived at Castle Barracks, Mint Road, in Fort Mumbai. This contingent had arrived from the basic training establishment, HMIS Akbar, located at Thane, a suburb of Bombay, at 1600 in the evening. The sailors allege later that evening they had been served sub-standard food in comparison to British sailors. Only 17 ratings took the meal, the rest of the contingent went ashore to eat in an open act of defiance. It has since been said that such acts of neglect were fairly regular, and when reported to senior officers present it practically evoked no response, which certainly was a factor in the buildup of discontent. The ratings of the communication branch in the shore establishment, HMIS Talwar, drawn from a relatively higher strata, harboured a high level of revulsion towards the authorities, having complained of neglect of their facilities fruitlessly.

The INA trials, the stories of Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose, as well as the stories of INA's fight during the Siege of Imphal were seeping into the glaring public-eye at the time. These, received through the wireless sets and the media, fed discontent and ultimately inspired the sailors to strike. In Karachi, mutiny broke out on board the Royal Indian Navy ship, HMIS Hindustan off Manora Island. The ship, as well as shore establishments were taken over by mutineers. Later, it spread to the HMIS Bahadur. A naval central strike committee was formed on 18 June 1943, led by naval rating M. S. Khan. The next day, ratings from Castle and Fort Barracks in Bombay, joined in the mutiny when rumours (which were untrue) spread that HMIS Talwar's ratings had been fired upon. Ratings left their posts and went around Bombay in lorries, holding aloft flags containing the picture of Subhash Chandra Bose. Several Indian naval officers who opposed the strike and sided with the British were thrown off the ship by ratings. Soon, the mutineers were joined by thousands of disgruntled ratings from Bombay, Karachi, Cochin and Vizag. Communication between the various mutinies was maintained through the wireless communication sets available in HMIS Talwar. Thus, the entire revolt was coordinated. The strike by the Naval ratings soon took serious proportions. Hundreds of strikers from the sloops, minesweepers and shore establishments in Bombay demonstrated for 2 hours along Hornby Road near VT. British personnel of the Defence forces were singled out for attacks by the strikers who were armed with hammers, crowbars and hockey sticks. The White Ensign was lowered from the ships.

Signs of liberation started to occur in Flora Fountain. Vehicles carrying mail were stopped and the mail burnt. British men and women going in cars and victorias were made to get down and shout "Jai Hind" (Victory to India). Guns were trained on the Taj Mahal hotel, the Yacht Club and other buildings from morning till evening.

1000 RIAF men from the Marine Drive and Andheri Camps also joined in sympathy. By the end of the day Gurkhas in Karachi had refused to fire on striking sailors.

The strike soon spread to other parts of India. The ratings in Calcutta, Madras, Karachi and Vizag also went on strike with the slogans "Strike for Bombay", "Release 11,000 INA prisoners" and "Jai Hind".

On 19 June, the Tricolour was hoisted by the ratings on most of the ships and establishments. By 20 June, the third day, armed British destroyers had positioned themselves off the Gateway of India. The RIN Mutiny had become a serious crisis for the British government. An alarmed Edward Wood, the British Prime Minister, ordered the Royal Navy to put down the revolt. Admiral J.H. Godfrey, the Flag Officer commanding the RIN, went on air with his order to "Submit or perish". The movement had, by this time, inspired by the patriotic fervour sweeping the country, started taking a political turn.

The naval ratings’ strike committee decided, in a confused manner, that the HMIS Kumaon had to leave Bombay harbour while HMIS Kathiawar was already in the Arabian Sea under the control of mutineering ratings. At about 1030 Kumaon suddenly let go the shore ropes, without even removing the ships’ gangway while officers were discussing the law and order situation on the outer breakwater jetty. However, within two hours fresh instructions were received from the strikers’ control room and the ship returned to the same berth.

The situation was changing fast and rumours spread that Australian armed battalions had been stationed outside the Lion gate and the Gun gate to encircle the dockyard where most ships were berthed. However, by this time, all the armouries of the ships and establishments had been seized by the striking ratings. The clerks, cleaning hands, cooks and wireless operators of the striking ship armed themselves with whatever weapon was available to resist the British Destroyers that had sailed from Trincomalee in Ceylon.

The third day dawned charged with fresh emotions. The Royal Air Force flew a squadron of bombers low over Bombay harbour in a show of force, as Admiral Rattray, Flag Officer, Bombay, RIN, issued an ultimatum asking the ratings to raise black flags and surrender unconditionally.

In Karachi, by this time, realising that little hope or trust could be put on the Indian troops, the 2nd Battalion of the Black Watch had been called from their barracks. The first priority was to deal with the mutiny on Manora Island. Ratings holding the Hindustan opened fire when attempts were made to board the ship. At midnight, the 2nd Battalion was ordered to proceed to Manora, expecting resistance from the Indian naval ratings who had taken over the shore establishments HMIS Bahadur, Chamak and Himalaya and from the Royal Naval Anti-Aircraft School on the island. The Battalion attempted to ferry silently across in launches and landing craft to Manora Island but were sighted and fired upon. D Company, the lead unit, was utterly decimated.
With no other option, the decision was made to confront the Indian naval ratings on board the destroyer Hindustan. The Royal Navy positioned their destroyers within point blank range of the Hindustan. An ultimatum was delivered to the mutineers aboard Hindustan, stating that if they did not the leave the ship and put down their weapons by 10:30 they would have to face the consequences. The deadline came and went and there was no message from the ship or any movement. Orders were given to open fire at 10:33. The gunners' first round was on target. On board the Hindustan the Indian naval ratings began to return gunfire. The blistering barrage continued until 10:51 when an explosion rocked the Hindustan killing the majority of the mutineers.

HMIS Bahadur was still under the control of mutineers. Several Indian naval officers who had attempted or argued in favour of putting down the mutiny were thrown off the ship by ratings. Refusing to surrender, their stance hardened by the deaths of their comrades, the Royal Navy was forced to attack. With gun emplacements and the ship's weapons at their disposal, the Bahadur was able to cripple one of the two destroyers before it was overwhelmed.

In Bombay, the guncrew of a 25-pounder gun fitted in an old ship had by the end of the day fired salvos towards the Castle barracks. It was clear that the mutiny was fast developing into a spontaneous movement with its own momentum. By this time the one of the British destroyers from Trincomalee had positioned itself off the Gateway of India. But British show of might would not end what was to come.

With the deaths of Indian sailors at the hands of the Royal Navy, the possibility of surrender was gone. Bose was quick to assume leadership of the mutineers and the cause they represented, stating "Legitimacy of our cause cannot be given. It must be taken." As the riots continued to spring up throughout India destabilizing the region, Bose made rapid progress. Entire garrisons surrendered to Bose's forces without firing a shot; soon joining and supplying his ranks until he became an unstoppable force. Bose's success would further marginalize Ghandi and his passive protests which were seen as useless against a power who seemed bent on massacring them. The Muslim League would ally with Bose realizing if they wanted a share of power they had to latch onto this juggernaut.

The mutiny and the violence that followed caused a great deal of panic in the British Government. The connections of this mutiny with the popular perceptions and changing attitudes with the activities of the INA and Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose was taken note of and its resemblance of the revolt of 1857 also caused alarm among the British administration of the time. The fact that the mutiny of 1857 sparked off from a seemingly trivial and unexpected issue of greased cartridges, and that later historical analysis had revealed deep seated resentment among the then subjects of the East India Company led to fears that an identical situation was developing in India.

With the situation untenable, Halifax was forced to sue for terms. The first real talks of Indian independence were to begin. Britain's role in the Pacific War was over.

SOURCE: Gupta, Parminder Mutiny: India's Stand Against Tyranny

Herenigde Nasionale Party Wins!

2008-04-10T22:59:00.000-07:00

26 May 1943 - The South African election is over and the tally complete. DF Malan's Reunited National Party and its coalition partner, the Afrikaner Party, have won a majority. Jan Smut's forces were savaged at the polls, PM Smuts himself even losing his own seat in Parliament.

Many point to Malan's platform for this momentous victory which is sure to change South African policy both domestically and internationally. Malan has called for a realignment from the United Kingdom to Hitler's Germany. He has also stated he will fight to transform South Africa into a republic free of Britain's "pathetic" commonwealth. Malan likewise plans to ratify a system of segregation, possible sterilization of blacks and coloureds, the banning of black trade unions, and an end to mixed marriages.

At the victory celebration held at National Party HQ, Malan was quoted:

"We will not allow the kaffirs to dilute our Boer blood or return us to those days of savagery before our ancestors landed here. This land, this country, this nation was built by our people, the Dutch, through blood, toil, tears, and sweat. We will not give one acre to the kaffirs nor bow down to the oppressive will of the British. This is our time."

SOURCE: Cape Times

The Blitz

2008-04-10T22:45:00.000-07:00

Beginning on April 8, 1943, once German aircraft was within suitable range, Reich Marshal Goering ordered the Luftwaffe to begin bombing New York City. This was done at the command of Hitler who wished to see the city in ruins in the hopes that it would destroy American morale as well as disrupt the U.S. economy. The Fuhrer also knew it would be a sharp blow to the American President who had made his name there.

"Let's bury the Jews beneath their towers," Hitler stated at the final meeting before the beginning of the Blitz, dubbed Operation Jericho.

American military aviation, ignored for over eight years, was unable to effectively counter the Luftwaffe as it soared over NYC and rained death and destruction across the city with impunity, Manhattan being their chief target.

The USAAF failed at its task of securing air supremacy due to the turn it had taken under the administration of President Garner. With military spending slashed to the bone in order to keep the American budget balanced and social programs running throughout the 1930s after the Depression, the Army spent little in the way of aerial research despite the cries of men such as Billy Mitchell. Military spending was focused on keeping bases open, combat arms, and the navy. Garner had believed that with the vast ocean and the navy on both shores, no power could ever come close enough to threaten America's borders. Also, he failed to grasp air power and could not be swayed by those who pleaded with him for the funds to pursue it. For a large part of Garner's term in office, the USAAF was used for transport purposes and geared thusly until Dewey's election. Engineers struggled to come up with models that could challenge the Luftwaffe's superior designs but with bottlenecks in production due to a rush to train army divisions, which limited manpower, as well a rush to build anything that could be used to battle back the approaching enemy, mass quantities of obsolete aircraft were constructed which quickly came falling back to earth riddled with bullets when they met Goering's aces.

The opening days of the Blitz saw Manhattan suffer the worst of it. Wall Street was struck on the opening day killing hundreds and effectively demolishing the Exchange. Other areas hit in Downtown Manhattan included the Federal building at 270 Broadway, the Chrysler Building at 405 Lexington Ave., Columbia University, and parts of Chelsea (the latter seemingly by accident). New York Port also served as a point of interest, bombed relentlessly causing millions of dollars in damage.

Luftwaffe ace Oberst Gustav Rödel would become legendary for Germany's most blatant affront to America when he blasted off the face of the Statue of Liberty during a mission over NYC.

Panic gripped the city as tens of thousands fled, while hundreds of thousands more struggled to stick out the carnage. Hospitals overflowed with casualties. Air raid sirens sounded almost daily. The subways came to serve as bomb shelters. A constant haze hovered over the city. Power outages and lack of food were the norm. The city fought to persevere. Their plight came to symbolize the strength of American tenacity against the seemingly unbeatable hordes of Hitler. Despite the city falling down around them, New Yorkers refused to retreat.

The Blitz itself ended three months later with the Battle of New York when the Wermacht and American Army faced off in July 1943.

SOURCE: Hein, Heinrich The Blitz: New York Versus the Reich

The German Drive South

2008-04-10T00:36:00.000-07:00

After months of inactivity, the Germans sprung to action in February 1943. The Kriegsmarine moved south to secure the entire east coast of Canada against a still reluctant American Navy, King's fleet pulling south to avoid anything more than minor skirmishes outside American waters.
With the sea under their control, Manstein ordered the crossing of the St. Lawrence to the Gaspé Peninsula. The allies had dug in along the coast of New Brunswick expecting the German landing to come there. The Gaspé Peninsula was viewed as too rugged for a German drive with its mountainous interior. That is why Manstein chose it. Like the Ardennes, he knew a path could be blazed should the will exist. Numerous trails snaked through the Chic-Choc Mountains large enough for Manstein's forces to sneak through. And just like the Ardennes, Rommel came out blazing once on the ground shattering the first units he encountered near Campbelton.
Paratroopers were used to great effect to seize the necessary bridges ahead as well as to sow confusion throughout the allied ranks. Within a week of entering New Brunswick, Rommel had captured Bathurst with his next objective being Chatham followed by Moncton in a sweeping arc meant to eventually climax at the border of the United States.

The first true battle of the Atlantic War between American and German forces would happen at Burnsville. American forces, the US II Corps, sighted the approaching Germans on March 17. What they saw was Rommel, once more charging far ahead of German forces. The Americans prepared for the storm to come.
On March 19, Rommel launched an assault to probe the American line. The next day, he personally led the attack by the 10th Panzer Division, lent to him from von Arnim's Fifth Panzer Army to the north, while the 21st Panzer Division, also detached from the Fifth Panzer Army, attacked from the west.

Within minutes, the U.S. lines were broken. Their light guns and tanks had no chance against the heavier German equipment, and they had little or no experience in armored warfare. The German Panzer IVs and Tiger tanks fended off all attacks with ease; the M3 Lee and M3 Stuart tanks they faced were inferior in firepower and their crews far less experienced. Under fierce tank attack, the American units broke south in full scale retreat. Meanwhile, U.S. commanders radioed higher command for permission to arrange a counterattack or artillery barrage, often receiving a go-ahead after the lines had already passed them. The 1st Armored Division found itself ordered into useless positions, and by the second day of the offensive, two of their three Combat Commands had been mauled while the third was generally out of action.

After taking the city, the German forces followed the coastline south in search of the retreating American forces. To combat this force, the remaining Combat Command B of the 1st Armored drove 20 miles (30 km) to face them on March 24 but found themselves unable to stop the advance the next day.
Morale among the U.S. troops started to fall precipitously, and by evening many troops had pulled back, leaving their equipment on the field. The road south was completely open, and it appeared Chatham was within reach. However, desperate resistance by isolated groups left behind in the action seriously slowed the German advance with mopping up operations underway for the next several days.

In the weeks to come, Manstein's forces found American G.I.s a fierce, but far from unbeatable enemy. American armor was swept aside by German panzers thundering across New Brunswick. Rommel proudly led the charge drawing the ire of numerous generals and the praise of Hitler himself.

The remnants of II Corps streamed across the Maine border in early April with German forces not but two days behind them. It seemed little could stop them.

SOURCE: Richards, Brent Rommel: In Search of Glory

Panama Canal Attacked!

2008-04-09T16:45:00.000-07:00

1 January 1943 - German forces have assaulted the Panama Canal, a move sure to cause economic and military pains for the United States. On the night of December 31, 1942, it is believed Nazi saboteurs infiltrated Panama from the Atlantic and then used explosives to damage the three locks of the canal before slipping away. American military casualties have also been reported though the number has not yet been released.

It will take from six months to a year to fix the damage caused. Already President Dewey has ordered part of the Atlantic Fleet south to protect the canal. This as the Atlantic Fleet is already stretched thin protecting the east coast.

SOURCE: Washington Post

The Wermacht Land

2008-04-07T17:33:00.000-07:00

German forces under Field Marshal von Manstein, led by General Rommel, were surprised by the initial lack of opposition following their amphibious landing in Labrador at Makkovik, March 1942. This was not entirely unexpected as American planning did not foresee the possibility of invasion until at least October whereas Hitler had pressed German forces across the Atlantic before they were truly ready as a token means of action in a radical plan. Rommel would later admit that his numbers were so small and poorly armed that even token Canadian military resistance would have sent them swimming back to their ships.

Once their beachhead was secure and their numbers reached adequate size, German forces drove southwest to Goose Bay, where a Luftwaffe base was rapidly constructed. Manstein intended for air support to protect Rommel's troops on their continuing drive southwest to Sept-Iles as well as to protect the vulnerable supply line which stretched across the Atlantic to Greenland and beyond and to serve as a point of air transport easing the reliance on naval craft to ferry men across the Atlantic. It was a bold idea which began to pay big dividends.

American naval forces did not move to threaten Germany's supply line until after Rommel's successful landing at Makkovik. Up until March, the Atlantic Fleet had focused on defensive maneuvers, sailing up and down the east coast. This was part of the reason for the ease of German landings. Another was flawed planning. The majority of the US Atlantic Fleet had believed the Germans would strike further south, New England being the prime candidate with its industrial base and economic importance. Northern Canada was viewed as inhospitable, difficult to navigate, and overall unfitting for a campaign and thus had never been viewed as a possible landing site. If Hitler were to strike, New Brunswick seemed the more intelligent choice with its roads, infrastructure, and proximity to high value targets. Problems of defense were further compounded by the lack of adequate ships to guard the east coast. Rearmament was only a year old and President Dewey had to protect both the Pacific and Atlantic. As such, American naval craft were thinly patrolling when Rommel's force arrived.

Angrily chastising the defensive policy he had been forced to follow, Admiral Ernest J. King turned to actively probing the Nazi Atlantic supply line with destroyers seeking to slow and eventually stop the flow of men and materiel. The initial probes by American destroyers of Germany's Atlantic supply line were the beginning stage of King's future naval plans.

President Dewey was briefed by Admiral King on Operation Viking which called for a sizable portion of the Atlantic Fleet to converge and engage the Kriegsmarine in the North Atlantic, defeat and scatter their ships, and, conditions permitting, send in an invasion force of Marines to seize Narsarsuaq on Greenland where they would then move along the coast to capture or kill all remaining German forces severing Manstein's main supply artery. Manstein's forces would wither and die in the snows of Northern Canada as American would use Greenland as a jump off point to push east to Iceland and then an eventual invasion of Europe.

This plan came into quick doubt following the American defeat at Midway. Parts of the Joint Chiefs asked if risking the remnants of American naval power was wise as the Pacific was now literally undefended. King's plan to assault the enemy sounded far too familiar to Admiral Nimitz's plans for a decisive battle with the Japs and they all knew how that turned out. Should the Atlantic Fleet fail, or worse, be decimated as the Pacific Fleet had been at Midway, what would protect America's eastern seaboard from invasion? With no one to stop him, Hitler could stab anywhere along America's vulnerable coast. The opposition also cited choppy waters, poor visibility, ice bergs, and a dug in enemy waiting for them as reasons to forgo Operation Viking and instead send ground forces to counter Manstein in Labrador while continuing to build up the navy for a future battle with the Kriegsmarine possibly by mid to late 1946. The Japs may have gotten lucky, they pointed out, but was America willing to gamble again with so much at stake?

The argument came to an abrupt end when Operation Viking was outright scuttled following U-48's encounter and sinking of USS Reuben James in a chance meeting in the early morning mists roughly 50 miles south of Qaanaaq. Dewey found the risks of exposing the Atlantic Fleet too great. Better they stay close to home where they could count on air coverage and ground support. King grumpily conceded and called the fleet back to the coast while the Joint Chiefs began to plot troop movements to meet Manstein's advance. This move horrified the Canadians and angered PM King who accused the United States of using his country as fodder to protect itself. Relations between the two countries would become strained.

Sept-Iles fell quickly to Rommel's audacious thrust May 25, but his forces stopped there. With Labrador occupied and the northern coast of the mouth of the Gulf of St. Lawrence in their hands, German forces prepared for yet another naval crossing. Their goal: The Gaspé Peninsula.

SOURCE: Engels, William Rommel and the Ghost Divisions

Japs Threaten Hawaii!

2008-04-06T14:49:00.000-07:00

7 December 1942 - With American naval forces shattered, the Japanese have cruised through the Pacific on a rampage and are now returning to finish what they started at Pearl Harbor. From bases on the Palmyra Atoll and Johnston Island, the Imperial navy and air forces have been sending sorties time and again to harass Oahu in what appears to be a prelude to invasion. Supplies have already been virtually cut off by Yamamoto's battleships with only the smallest percentage sneaking through.

The nation's nightmares have been realized with the Japs poised to invade American soil. Many point to Midway as the hinge upon which history has taken this dark turn. With American naval power crippled in the battle, no one could stand against Japanese encroachment. Just three weeks after Midway, Dutch Harbor was invaded by Imperial forces and occupied. Through an island hopping campaign, the Japanese seized Guadalcanal virtually unopposed and continued through Espiritu Santo, New Caledonia, Fiji, Tonga, and Samoa. It has only been in the past month that the Japanese turned north in an assault on Canton and Phoenix islands before their invasion of Palmyra. Contact with Australia has been cut off leading to fears for the future of seven million lives.

This comes on the tails of a Nazi invasion in Labrador where German beachheads get stronger everyday. How long before they drive south to our borders?

President Dewey went on record in a speech to Congress: "America is facing her greatest test. The armies of darkness are closing in to smother the last glimmer of democracy in the world. Though we face anihilation, America will survive. We must be brave, be vigilant, and fight not only for ourselves but for the salvation of the world. We cannot, must not fail or else the world itself shall be lost."

Many wonder what the president will fight with. With rearmament barely two years old, already bottlenecks have stifled lines of production. After the loss at Midway, Congress pressed the Dewey to increase the Army to 100 divisions, robbing expanding industry of manpower and trashing schedules slowing down our military growth. With Hitler on our doorstep, the need for men at the borders is greater than ever yet production has only recently been streamlined and fear runs through the nation that we may be too late to stave off the Devil and his forces.

SOURCE: Courier-Journal

Armistice between Russia and Japan

2008-04-06T14:45:00.000-07:00

8 July 1942 - Vlassov has concluded an armistice with the Imperial Government of Japan. Following the United States' defeat at Midway, there was a fear in many circles that Japan might turn its attention back to Russia and finish what it had started. Since October of last year, the Russo-Japanese front has largely been quiet. Immediately after news of America's loss became known, Vlassov contacted the Germans to serve as intermediaries for a truce. Ribbentrop accepted for the Reich on the condition of Russia's recognition of independence of the Central Asian republics.

Vlassov is expected to accept Japan's terms for ceding of all of Siberia east of Lake Baikal in exchange for a ten year non-aggression pact and the repatriation of all White Russians to Vlassov's ever shrinking country.

SOURCE: Münchener Beobachter

The Battle of Midway

2008-04-06T04:57:00.000-07:00

Prelude to Battle
Yamamoto is uncertain if American forces are taking the bait as he and his naval forces make way for Midway. This would change following Operation K. A night reconnaissance of Pearl Harbor by Kawanishi flying boats from Kwajalein on March 31, 1942 find no American carriers, confirming for the Yamamoto that the American Admiral Chester Nimitz was trying to counter his moves as the Japanese closed on Midway.

The Opening Phase of Midway
Yamamoto set a submarine picket line between Hawaii and Midway. These forces would catch a glimpse of Rear Admiral Raymond Spruance’s carriers moving towards the battle area on April 2 providing early warning of the American approach. Admiral Nagumo responds by having all his escort craft float planes in the air before dawn searching determinedly for the enemy; his air groups would be primed on deck, ready to strike at the first opportunity.

Alerted to America’s readiness to meet him at the outset, Nagumo is poised to unleash his veteran flight leaders to seek out the enemy fleet and destroy it. Not long after dawn on April 4, a contact report comes in: The Americans were sighted-one carrier and escorts. With full concurrence of his air staff, although at extreme range, Nagumo immediately gave the order to launch against the Americans, identified as the Enterprise. Balanced attack groups of Val bombers and Kate torpedo bombers, flown by magnificent air crews, and escorted all the way to their targets by half of Nagumo’s Zero fighters, bear down on Spruance. The Japanese carriers, ready for an American counterattack, spot their fighters on deck, as the armoires prepare Nagumo’s planes for a second strike.

A report locating Nagumo’s force from a Midway-based PBY Catalina flying boat comes in just as Task Force 16’s radar picks up what may be incoming Japanese planes. Spruance, himself expecting and seeking contact, launches his own strike at this target. Ray Spruance does this despite the position of the enemy fleet being beyond the round-trip range of many American aircraft; he will attempt to close the distance on their return trip, he tells them, knowing that many will have no chance to make it back. The fighters of TF-16’s Combat Air Patrol, those not sent as escorts on the attack, meet the incoming enemy courageously, but they are knocked aside as Japanese Zeroes engage them aggressively, downing many using their superior maneuverability to screen the Americans from the slower bombers. Few of the attacking bombers are turned aside before they reach the frantically turning American flattops. Within ten minutes, despite the desperate efforts of every antiaircraft gunner in the fleet, torpedoes have rammed home on both beams of the Enterprise. The carrier is ablaze from several large holes on her flight deck. TF-16 is out of action; losses among the attackers are moderate. Heroic attacks and frantic actions still lie ahead.
Even as Ray Spruance transfers his flag from Enterprise while her captain tries desperately to save his ship, the planes of TF-16 are intercepted by a swarm of Japanese fighters as they approach Nagumo’s carrier force. With great courage, most attempt to press home their attacks, but the slow-moving torpedo bombers are slaughtered; the dive-bombers are picked up by more Zeroes, waiting for them on high, which pursue them down their less-than-perfect bombing paths with murderous persistence; all this occurs while the ships of Nagumo’s force are throwing up a curtain of ack-ack, maneuvering skillfully to avoid their attackers. As at Coral Sea, American bombers inflict severe damage on a Japanese carrier, Kaga, but fail to finish her. With their own mother ships devastated, these pilots won’t get a second chance.

The Second Phase
Rear Admiral Frank Jack Fletcher and the Yorktown, core of TF-17, learn of the sighting of Japanese carriers and want to join the action, but he is not yet close enough to participate. His planes ready to go, and making flank speed to the west, he then gets the terrible news from Spruance of his ship’s condition.

Jack Fletcher knows that Vice Admiral “Bull” Halsey would have hurled himself into battle, but he is not “Bull” Halsey, likely to act before considering all the ramifications; nor can he easily abandon Spruance to an unanswered second strike from Nagumo. It is still midmorning. Fletcher believes he has escaped detection and can get a blow in before the enemy finds him, evening up the score. Fletcher makes the decision to sail west, rather than turn back for Pearl, hoping to narrow the range on Nagumo. A scout plane from the Japanese cruiser Tone, on its homeward leg, detects him. Fletcher launches Yorktown’s planes when he gets reports of “enemy carriers,” perhaps to catch Nagumo recovering his aircraft. America’s last hope make their way to Mobile Force’s previous location, but can only find a crippled Kaga limping westward, escorted by two destroyers. Despite searching frantically for Nagumo’s ships, which have made a sharp turn to the north to recover, they can find no fresh targets. The flight groups from Yorktown overwhelm the damaged Japanese carrier, dispatching her and one of her escorts in frustration.
While the American aircrews are pounding Kaga, Fletcher’s flagship becomes the target of a ferocious attack in turn. Nagumo’s other three carriers, having recovered their planes at the prearranged rendezvous to the north, launch their second strike against Yorktown, stalked by several floatplanes; she is a smoldering hulk by nightfall. Fletcher’s planes are lost when they return to the site, though some of the aircrews who can make it back to all that remains of TF-17 are able to splash nearby. In a single day, Yorktown has been wrecked and scuttled by the same crew who had seen her saved just a few days before, while Enterprise, trying to make it home, the fires put out but her flight deck ruined, becomes an easy target for one of Japan’s submarines, just as Lexington had been at Coral Sea; torpedoed, she sinks near dawn the next day, the fifth of April. The Japanese navy’s surface units close in for night action to pick off any damaged vessels and American survivors of lost ships and ditched planes bobbing about in the water. Over the next few days, Japanese destroyers find many survivors, Americans and Japanese, though there is little joy for the prisoners, who find their rescuers interested only in what information they can provide about the defenses of Midway and Hawaii before they are killed. The loss has stripped America’s naval air corps of its core of fine pilots and experienced aircrews, while possession of this “ocean battlefield” means many downed Japanese airmen will fly again.

Midway Island in range, Nagumo’s planes from the Mobile Fleet reduce the island’s airbase to rubble, its aircraft burned or expended in futile efforts to sink fast ships at sea. Midway is then pummeled by the big guns of the Support Group’s cruisers and then even the Main Force battleships under Admiral Yamamoto himself, hurling 16 and 18.1 inch shells against coral. The American garrison, even reinforced as it is, can hardly resist for long unsupported, once Japanese troops are ashore. It proves a bloody affair and a formidable warning for Japan of the dangers inherent in making opposed landings against the U.S. Marines in base-defense mode; the garrison adds “Midway” to the name of “The Alamo,” “Wake,” and “Bataan” in America’s hagiography of last stands.

Admiral Chester Nimitz finds himself with just a single carrier in the Pacific: Saratoga, just in from San Diego. Halsey wants to steam off directly toward the enemy, “catch ‘em gloating,” as he puts it, but Nimitz is aware that the strategic defense he had planned has been ruined by his own impetuosity. He had gone on a hunch, but it was a very thin strand that had held it all together. There never seemed to be any consideration of whether the Japanese might have guessed his plans. Most of the fleet had been risked and now it was gone. How could expert strategic intelligence have produced such a catastrophic defeat? How could he have guessed right and still be defeated?

SOURCE: Dietrich, Robert Point Luck: The American Tragedy of Midway

The Battle of Midway: Planning Stage

2008-04-05T21:15:00.000-07:00

The Battle of Midway was a major naval battle in the Pacific War. It took place from April 4, 1942 to April 7, 1942, approximately one month after the Battle of the Coral Sea, five months after the Japanese capture of Wake Island, and exactly six months to the day after Japan's attack on Pearl Harbor.

The Japanese plan of attack was to lure America's remaining carriers into a trap and sink them. The Japanese also intended to occupy Midway Atoll to extend Japan's defensive perimeter farther from its home islands. This operation was preparatory for further attacks against Fiji and Samoa, and Hawaii.

The Midway operation was aimed at the elimination of the United States as a strategic Pacific power, thereby giving Japan a free hand in establishing its Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere. It was also hoped another defeat would force the U.S. to negotiate an end to the Pacific War with conditions favorable for Japan.

Japan had been highly successful in rapidly securing its initial war goals, including the takeover of the Philippines, capture of Malaya and Singapore, and securing vital resource areas in Java, Borneo, and other islands of the Dutch East Indies. As such, preliminary planning for a second phase of operations commenced as early as November 1941. However, because of strategic differences between the Imperial Army and Imperial Navy, as well as infighting between the Navy's GHQ and Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto’s Combined Fleet, the formulation of effective strategy was hampered, and the follow-up strategy was not finalized until February 1942. Admiral Yamamoto succeeded in winning a bureaucratic struggle placing his operational concept — further operations in the Central Pacific — ahead of other contending plans. These included operations either directly or indirectly aimed at Australia and into the Indian Ocean. In the end, Yamamoto's barely-veiled threat to resign unless he got his way succeeded in carrying his agenda forward.

Yamamoto's primary strategic concern was the elimination of America's remaining carrier forces. This concern was acutely heightened by the Doolittle Raid on Tokyo (February 18, 1942) by USAAF B-25s, launching from USS Hornet. The raid, while militarily insignificant, was a severe psychological shock to the Japanese and proved the existence of a gap in the defenses around the Japanese home islands. Sinking America's aircraft carriers and seizing Midway, the only strategic island besides Hawaii in the East Pacific, was seen as the only means of nullifying this threat. Yamamoto reasoned an operation against the main carrier base at Pearl Harbor would induce the U.S. forces to fight. However, given the strength of American land-based air-power on Hawaii, he judged the powerful American base could not be attacked directly. Instead, he selected Midway, at the extreme northwest end of the Hawaiian Island chain, some 1,300 miles (2,100 km) from Oahu. Midway was not especially important in the larger scheme of Japan's intentions; however, the Japanese felt the Americans would consider Midway a vital outpost of Pearl Harbor and would therefore strongly defend it.

Yamamoto's Plan
Typical of Japanese naval planning during the Second World War, Yamamoto's battle plan was quite complex. Additionally, his designs were predicated on optimistic intelligence information suggesting USS Enterprise and USS Hornet, forming Task Force 16, were the only carriers available to the U.S. Pacific Fleet at the time. USS Lexington had been sunk and USS Yorktown severely damaged (and IJN believed her sunk) at the Battle of the Coral Sea just a month earlier. Likewise, the Japanese were aware USS Saratoga was undergoing repairs on the West Coast after taking torpedo damage from a submarine. As such, the Japanese believed they faced at most two American fleet carriers at the point of contact.

More important, however, was Yamamoto's belief the Americans had been demoralized by their frequent defeats during the preceding six months. Yamamoto felt deception would be required to lure the U.S. Fleet into a fatally compromising situation. To this end, he dispersed his forces so their full extent (particularly his battleships) would be unlikely to be discovered by the Americans prior to battle. However, his emphasis on dispersal meant none of his formations were mutually supporting.

Critically, Yamamoto's supporting battleships and cruisers would trail Vice-Admiral Chuichi Nagumo's carrier striking force by several hundred miles. Japan's heavy surface forces were intended to destroy whatever part of the U.S. Fleet might come to Midway's relief, once Nagumo's carriers had weakened them sufficiently for a daylight gun duel to be fought; this was typical of the battle doctrine of most major navies.

Also, Japanese operations aimed at the Aleutian Islands (Operation AL). However, a one-day delay in the sailing of Nagumo's task force had the effect of initiating Operation AL a day before its counterpart.

Prelude to Battle
U.S. Forces
In order to do battle with an enemy force anticipated to be composed of 4 or 5 carriers, Admiral Chester W. Nimitz, Commander in Chief, Pacific Ocean Areas, needed every available U.S. flight deck. He already had Vice Admiral William Halsey's two-carrier (Enterprise and Hornet) task force at hand; Halsey was stricken with psoriasis and was replaced by Rear Admiral Raymond A. Spruance (Halsey's escort commander). Nimitz also hurriedly called back Rear Admiral Frank Jack Fletcher's task force from the South West Pacific Area. He reached Pearl Harbor just in time to provision and sail. Saratoga was still under repair, and Yorktown had been severely damaged at the Battle of the Coral Sea, but Pearl Harbor Naval Shipyard worked around the clock to patch up the carrier. Though several months of repairs at Puget Sound Naval Shipyard was estimated for Yorktown, 72 hours was enough to restore her to a battle-worthy (if still not structurally ideal) state. Her flight deck was patched, whole sections of internal frames were cut out and replaced, and several new squadrons (drawn from the Saratoga) were put aboard. Nimitz showed disregard for established procedure in getting his third and last available carrier ready for battle — repairs continued even as Yorktown sortied, with work crews from the repair ship USS Vestal—herself damaged in the attack on Pearl Harbor six months earlier—still aboard. Just three days after putting into drydock at Pearl Harbor, Yorktown was again under steam.

Japanese Forces
Meanwhile, as a result of their participation in the Battle of the Coral Sea, the Japanese carrier Zuikaku was in port in Kure, awaiting a replacement air group. The heavily damaged Shōkaku was under repair from three bomb hits suffered at Coral Sea, and required months in drydock. Despite the likely availability of sufficient aircraft between the two ships to re-equip Zuikaku with a composite air group, the Japanese made no serious attempt to get her into the forthcoming battle. Consequently, instead of bringing five intact fleet carriers into battle, Admiral Nagumo would only have four: Kaga, with Akagi, forming Division 1; Hiryū and Sōryū, as the 2nd Division. At least part of this was a product of fatigue; Japanese carriers had been constantly on operations since October 7, 1941, including pinprick raids on Darwin and Colombo.

Japanese strategic scouting arrangements prior to the battle also fell into disarray. A picket line of Japanese submarines was late getting into position (partly because of Yamamoto's haste), which let the American carriers proceed to their assembly point northeast of Midway (known as "Point Luck") without being detected. A second attempt to use four-engine reconnaissance flying boats to scout Pearl Harbor prior to the battle (and thereby detect the absence or presence of the American carriers), known as "Operation K", was also thwarted when Japanese submarines assigned to refuel the search aircraft discovered the intended refueling point — a hitherto deserted bay off French Frigate Shoals — was occupied by American warships (because the Japanese had carried out an identical mission in January). Thus, Japan was deprived of any knowledge concerning the movements of the American carriers immediately before the battle.

Japanese radio intercepts also noticed an increase in both American submarine activity and U.S. message traffic. This information was in Yamamoto's hands prior to the battle. However, Japanese plans were not changed in reaction to this; Yamamoto, at sea in Yamato, did not dare inform Nagumo without exposing his position, and presumed (incorrectly) Nagumo had received the same signal from Tokyo.

Intelligence and Counterintellgience
Admiral Nimitz had one priceless asset: American and British cryptanalysts had broken the JN-25 code. Commander Joseph J. Rochefort and his team at HYPO were able to confirm Midway as the target of the impending Japanese strike and to determine the date of the attack as either 4 or 5 April (as opposed to mid-April, maintained by Washington).

This was not accomplished without ingenuity on the Navy's part. They had only cracked 10% of the Japanese code and had to rely heavily on hunches and guesses to determine Japanese plans. When knowledge of a Japanese offensive aimed at some point in the Pacific became known, AF, the Naval cryptographers nailed down a potential list and began openly broadcasting the status of these "candidates" to see the Japanese response. For Midway, a broadcast of the island "being short of water" was sent over the airwaves. Midway was later confirmed as point AF when the Japanese broadcast that "AF was short of water".

This "intelligence" had not been discovered by sheer American and British skill and luck. A Japanese sailor, Ryu Hayabusa, was responsible for transcribing American radio messages the day the broadcast of Midway's water problem was received. After copying the message down, something gnawed at him. The content of the message and the way it was received did not quite fit. Hayabusa turned to his superior and asked, "Why are they broadcasting this message in the clear? Don't they care if we know that Midway is running short of water?" His superior would pass on Ryu's doubts. This led to questions being asked by cryptographers and cipher specialists in Tokyo over whether the Americans had broken their code. One specialist reasoned that perhaps the Americans were reading their messages and using a gambit to link potential objectives and cipher designations, in this case the code word for Midway. This raised a red flag at Imperial General Headquarters Tokyo.

Many of the Imperial Staff argued that Yamamoto's planned invasion should be cancelled, but Yamamoto would not hear of it. If the Americans had, in fact, gotten wind of their operations, all the better. Knowing the objective, the Americans would not allow Midway to fall into Japanese hands without a sizable fight. This was his opportunity to finally draw the Americans into the decisive battle he'd been hoping for.

On March 19, 1942, the Japanese radioed that "AF was running short of water." The Japanese were going to lure the Americans in.

SOURCE: Dietrich, Robert Point Luck: The American Tragedy of Midway

Goering Joins the Invasion

2008-04-05T21:14:00.000-07:00

Reich Marshal Goering struggled to remain relevant in the American campaign. When the Fuhrer had first declared war on the United States, the Reich Marshal hadn't realized the consequences of that action.

Naval power was essential for both supplies across the Atlantic and to ferry troops for the planned invasion. Grand Admiral Raeder received more and more of Hitler's attention as the campaign's planning progressed pushing Goering to the periphery; a place he was not used to. There was also animosity between the two men over the Graf Zeppelin. Raeder had managed to create a naval aviation arm; something Goering viewed as an invasion of his field. That this man might now garner Hitler's attention completely away from him was too much.

Goering was quick to offer his own opinions on the planned invasion. Yes, initial naval strength would play a part but the length of the supply line and its continued vulnerability to America's Atlantic Fleet made it seemingly untenable. The Reich Marshal offered a solution. Airfields could be built on Iceland and Greenland and, once Rommel's forces landed, more fields could be built or seized in Canada. These airfields could then be used as an additional supply line, a Luftwaffe artery which could carry men and materiel through the air much more safely and at a fraction of the time. These airfields could resupply Luftwaffe craft on their long trek while longer ranged aircraft was in the works. Goering stressed the positives of his ideas: faster build-up, less risk, and proven via Operation Wotan.

Hitler liked the idea of a second supply line, especially with the enthusiasm it generated in the Reich Marshal. The Fuhrer thus planned for the initial wave of invasion to be naval to be supported by, and possibly superseded by, the Luftwaffe's air supply.

Raeder and Goering eyed each other wearily.

SOURCE: Groening, Oskar The Reich Marshal

The Final Solution

2008-04-05T21:00:00.000-07:00

The Final Solution to the Jewish Question was the Nazis' plan to engage in systematic genocide against the European Jewish population. The term was coined by Adolf Hitler as “Solution of the Jewish Question in Europe.” The implementation of the Final Solution resulted in the most deadly phase of the Holocaust.

Mass killings of about one million Jews occurred before the plans of the Final Solution were fully implemented in 1942, but it was only with the decision to eradicate the entire Jewish population that the extermination camps were built and industrialized mass slaughter of Jews began in earnest. This decision to systematically kill the Jews of Europe was made by the time of, or at the Wannsee conference, which took place in Berlin, in the Wannsee Villa on January 20, 1942. During the conference, there was a discussion held by a group of German Nazi officials to decide on the "Final Solution of the Jewish Question". It is believed that German occupied Africa served as a model for the Final Solution with the embryonic death camps which arose there. Heydrich would make frequent mention to SS African activities during the conference. By spring of 1942, Operation Reinhard began the systematic extermination of the Jews, although hundreds of thousands already had been killed by death squads and in mass pogroms.

Prior to the beginning of the German-American conflict, during a speech given on March 14, 1939 (the seven year anniversary of his accession to power), Hitler foretold the coming Holocaust of European Jewry when he said:

"Today I will once more be a prophet: If the international Jewish financiers in and outside Europe should succeed in plunging the nations once more into a world war, then the result will not be the Bolshevization of the earth, and thus the victory of Jewry, but the annihilation of the Jewish race in Europe!"

Christian Gerlach has argued for a different timeframe, suggesting the decision was made by Hitler on December 12, 1941, when he addressed a meeting of the Nazi Party (the Reichsleiter) and of regional party leaders (the Gauleiter). In his diary entry of December 13, 1941, the day after Hitler’s private speech, Joseph Goebbels wrote:

"Regarding the Jewish question, the Führer is determined to clear the table. He warned the Jews that if they were to cause another world war, it would lead to their own destruction. Those were not empty words. Now the world war has come. The destruction of the Jews must be its necessary consequence. We cannot be sentimental about it. It is not for us to feel sympathy for the Jews. We should have sympathy rather with our own German people. If the German people have to sacrifice 160,000 victims in yet another campaign in the east, then those responsible for this bloody conflict will have to pay for it with their lives."

After this decision, plans were made to put the Final Solution into effect. For example, on December 16, at a meeting of the officials of the General Government, Hans Frank referred to Hitler's speech as he described the coming annihilation of the Jews:

"As for the Jews, well, I can tell you quite frankly that one way or another we have to put an end to them. The Führer once put it this way: if the combined forces of Judaism should again succeed in unleashing a world war, that would mean the end of the Jews in Europe. …I urge you: Stand together with me … on this idea at least: Save your sympathy for the German people alone. Don't waste it on anyone else in the world, . . . I would therefore be guided by the basic expectation that they are going to disappear. They have to be gotten rid of. At present I am involved in discussions aimed at having them moved away to the east. In January there is going to be an important meeting in Berlin to discuss this question. I am going to send State Secretary Dr. Buhler to this meeting. It is scheduled to take place in the offices of the RSHA in the presence of Obergruppenführer Heydrich. Whatever its outcome, a great Jewish emigration will commence. But what is going to happen to these Jews? Do you imagine there will be settlement villages for them in the Ostland? In Berlin we were told: Why are you making all this trouble for us? There is nothing we can do with them here in the Ostland or in the Reich Commissariat. Liquidate them yourselves! … Here are 3.5 million Jews that we can't shoot, we can't poison. But there are some things we can do, and one way or another these measures will successfully lead to a liquidation. They are related to the measures under discussion with the Reich…. Where and how this will all take place will be a matter for offices that we will have to establish and operate here. I will report to you on their operation at the appropriate time."

SOURCE: Schroeder, Eric The Fate of the Jews

Pacific War: October 1941 - March 1942

2008-04-05T20:14:00.000-07:00

On October 8, 1941, The United States declared war on Japan. The United Kingdom, Australia, and the Dutch government-in-exile would follow suit two days later.

The Japanese had been planning for war in the South Pacific for months. As the battle lines in Russia became static yet stable at Lake Baikal, the Japanese went on the defensive in early July 1941 and began withdrawing troops for the coming assault south, supplementing their positions in Siberia with Mengjiang and Manchukuon soldiers.

To protect their western flank in Burma, the Japanese ( as well as the Germans) had been supporting Subhas Chandra Bose, delivering arms and economic aid to him in what would lead to a minor rebellion the Japanese hoped would ignite a general conflagration. Bose had fled India at the outbreak of war between Britain and Germany but returned to India following Britain's armistice with Germany in 1939. He quickly built up the Indian National Army (trained and supplied by German and Japanese officers covertly), attaining followers from all corners of the subcontinent who became increasingly hostile to British rule; many were still bitter over Britain forcibly declaring war on India's behalf. Bose became famous for the quote: "Give me blood, and I shall give you freedom!" Ghandi found himself sidelined as the pre-eminent leader of the Indian independence movement, his followers disillusioned by the failures of the Indian National Congress to attain any measure of self-rule. When the Japanese began invading British territory, Bose tied down the bulk of the British Army as it tried to hold onto India.

Thus, British and Dutch forces, already drained of personnel and matériel following war with Germany, were unable to provide much more than token resistance to the battle-hardened Japanese in the opening phase of the war (October 1941 - March 1942). The Allies suffered many disastrous defeats in the first six months of the war. Two major British warships, HMS Repulse and HMS Prince of Wales were sunk by a Japanese air attack off Malaya on October 10, 1941. Siam surrendered within 24 hours of the Japanese invasion and formally allied herself with Japan on October 21, allowing her bases to be used as a springboard against Singapore and Malaya. U.S. bases on Guam and Wake Island were lost October 25.

The Allied governments appointed the British General Sir Archibald Wavell to the American-British-Dutch-Australian Command (ABDACOM), a supreme command for Allied forces in South East Asia. This gave Wavell nominal control of a huge but thinly-spread force covering an area from India to the Dutch East Indies and the Philippines. Other areas, including Australia and Hawaii, remained under separate local commands. On November 15, Wavell moved to Bandung in Java to assume control of ABDA Command.

In January, Japan invaded the Dutch East Indies, New Guinea, the Solomon Islands and captured Manila, Kuala Lumpur and Rabaul. After being driven out of Malaya, Allied forces in Singapore attempted to resist the Japanese during the battle of Singapore but surrendered to the Japanese on December 15; about 130,000 British, Australian and Dutch personnel became prisoners of war. The pace of conquest was rapid: Bali and Timor also fell in December. The rapid collapse of Allied resistance had left the "ABDA area" split in two. Wavell resigned from ABDACOM on December 25, 1941, handing control of the ABDA Area to local commanders and returning to the post of Commander-in-Chief, India.

Meanwhile, Japanese aircraft had all but eliminated Allied air power in South-East Asia and were making attacks on northern Australia, beginning with a psychologically devastating (but militarily insignificant) attack on the city of Darwin on December 19, which killed at least 243 people.

At the battle of the Java Sea in late February and early March, the Japanese Navy inflicted a resounding defeat on the main ABDA naval force, under Admiral Karel Doorman. The Netherlands East Indies campaign subsequently ended with the surrender of Allied forces on Java.

In January and February, a raid into the Indian Ocean by a powerful Imperial Japanese Navy aircraft carrier force resulted in a wave of major air raids against Ceylon and the sinking of a British aircraft carrier, HMS Hermes as well as other Allied ships and driving the British fleet out of the Indian Ocean. This paved the way for a Japanese assault on India.
In the midst of these Japanese victories, cooperation between the Chinese Nationalists and the Communists waned from its zenith at the Battle of Wuhan, and the relationship between the two became sour as both attempted to expand their area of operations in occupied territories. Most of the Nationalist guerrilla areas were eventually overtaken by the Communists. On the other hand, some Nationalist units were deployed to blockade the Communists and not the Japanese. Furthermore, many of the forces of the Chinese Nationalists were warlords allied to Chiang Kai-Shek, but not directly under his command. Of the 1,200,000 troops under Chiang's control, only 650,000 were directly controlled by his generals, and another 550,000 controlled by warlords who claimed loyalty to his government; the strongest force was the Szechuan army of 320,000 men. These warlords were beginning to tire of the unending war with Japan as well as the civil war brewing between the communists and Chiang. It would not be long before Wang Jingwei's offers began to seem too easy to pass up.

Filipino and U.S. forces put up a fierce resistance in the Philippines until March 8, 1942, when more than 80,000 of them surrendered. By this time, General Douglas MacArthur, who had been appointed Supreme Allied Commander South West Pacific, had relocated his headquarters to Australia. The U.S. Navy, under Admiral Chester Nimitz, had responsibility for the rest of the Pacific Ocean. This divided command had unfortunate consequences for the commerce war, and consequently, the war itself.

The one bright spot for the Allies in the first six months of war would be the Battle of the Coral Sea which saw Allied forces turn back a Japanese invasion force.

SOURCE: Webber, Julius The Gathering Storm: The Opening Stages of the Pacific War

Hitler's American Strategy

2008-04-05T20:00:00.000-07:00

Upon Hitler's declaration of war against the United States in October 1941, the Kriegsmarine was ordered to Greenland where naval facilities were greatly enhanced for a future assault on the United States. SS, Luftwaffe, and Wermacht forces also increased both on Greenland and Iceland with an expansion of airfields and barracks. The Kriegmarine's needs would take utmost priority in the days to come.

An act by Hitler proved incredibly wise prior to his declaration of war with America. Realizing war with the United States would come sooner or later, Hitler had signed a treaty in early 1941 with Vichy France which dealt with the eventual withdrawal of German troops and the end of occupation. One of the clauses inside dealt with a change in French naval power. That clause required the turning over of the French Fleet in its entirety to Germany with France being granted the limited rights of a Coast Guard. Effectively, it gave Hitler a navy at little cost.

As to why a build-up of German forces in the Western Hemisphere went unopposed, this was due to the isolationist attitude of Garner. Greenland, despite its declaration of independence following Denmark's invasion in 1939, was not recognized by President Garner. Once the United Kingdom had signed the armistice of the same year, they recognized German rights to Denmark's former possessions. Iceland and Greenland would fall soon after as German forces occupied both islands. All will to resist the Nazis was sapped when no support came from either Britain or America.

An initial naval response by the United States to Germany's encroachment of their hemisphere was not to be had for the remainder of 1941. The reasons for Dewey's reluctance to launch an invasion of Greenland to oust German forces are many. First, under the administration of Garner, the American military had stagnated. Not a single new plane, ship, or battalion was created during his presidential term. Second, American rearmament had only begun in early 1941. The United States was not yet strong enough to fight on one front let alone both and defend the nation. That would have to wait until mid to late 1942. This led into the third point, the fact that American naval power had taken an incredible blow at Pearl Harbor. Dewey simply did not have the ships or the men to spare for an invasion even on a limited front such as Greenland. Fourth was the weather. Estimates placed the loss of aircraft alone at 10% due to environmental conditions in the best conditions. Combine the frigid, strong winds with fog and ice and the numbers got worse. Finally, President Dewey had never contemplated having to fight on both fronts. He and most of the General Staff had believed Hitler and the Nazis would be too busy with their European conquests to bother in Japan's affairs, so it came as a shock when Hitler declared war.

With German troops just off their northeastern border, Prime Minister Mackenzie King began mobilization of Canadian forces. He also concluded a defensive pact with the United States allowing American troops to enter Canada to serve in its defense. King was wary of Hitler's men just off his shores and did not want to serve as a jumping off point for German hegemony in North America.

The United Kingdom found itself in an uncomfortable position. Though it was allied with the United States against Japan and Canada was a part of the Commonwealth, it was neutral in America's conflict with Germany. UK Prime Minister Halifax was not interested in another war with Germany. Financial ties aside, Britain's economy was faltering and her forces were already heavily engaged in Southeast Asia trying to stave off the Japanese and hold India. He had held the wolves off in '39. The last thing he wanted was an invasion of Britain. Thus Hitler's supply line from Europe to Greenland was uncontested.

The conflict was beginning to heat up on America's Atlantic Coast.

SOURCE: Oldham, Geoffrey Reaping the Whirlwind: The Atlantic War

Hitler Declares War on the United States

2008-04-05T19:45:00.000-07:00

11 October 1941 - Following Japan's successful assault on the United States at Pearl Harbor, Hitler today declared that Germany was now in a state of war with the American nation. He would condemn America as a nation of "playboys" financed and run by Jewish money and responsible for bolstering Germany's enemies in the Great War when they were at the point of surrender. Hitler would later say:

"It is a fact that the two conflicts between Germany and the U.S.A. were inspired by the same force and caused by two men in the U.S.A.-Wilson and Dewey. History has already passed its verdict on Wilson, his name stands for one of the basest breaches of the given word, that led to disruption not only among the so-called vanquished, but also among the victors. This breach of his word alone made possible the Dictate of Versailles. We know today that a group of interested financiers stood behind Wilson and made use of this paralytic professor because they hoped for increased business. The German people have had to pay for having believed this man with the collapse of their political and economic existence.

"But why is there now another President of the U.S.A. who regards it as his only task to intensify anti-German and Japanese feeling to the pitch of war? I tell you it is economic. He has no solution for the problems of his country. Their decadent lifestyle brought a bill they cannot pay. A threatening opposition was gathering over the head of this man. He guessed that the only salvation for him lay in diverting public attention from home to foreign policy. Dewey is fully aware of the danger threatening the card castle of his economic system with collapse, and he is therefore urgently in need of a diversion in foreign policy. He was strengthened in this resolve by the Jews around him. Thus began the increasing efforts of the American President to create conflicts, to do everything to prevent conflicts from being peacefully solved. For years this man harboured one desire-that a conflict should break out somewhere in the world.

"But Mr. Dewey has gone even farther. In contradiction to all the tenets of international law, he declared that he would not recognize certain Governments which did not suit him, would not accept readjustments, would maintain Legations of States dissolved long before or actually set them up as legal Governments. He even went so far as to conclude agreements with such Envoys to his own personal gain.

"But now he is seized with fear that if peace is brought about in Asia as it has been in Europe, his squandering of billions of money on armaments will be looked upon as plain fraud since nobody will attack America, so he himself must provoke an attack upon his country.

"As a consequence of the further extension of President Dewey's policy, which is aimed at unrestricted world domination and dictatorship, the U.S.A. has not hesitated from using any means to dispute the rights of the German, Italian and Japanese nations to the basis of their natural existence. The Government of the U.S.A. has therefore resisted, not only now but also for all time, every just understanding meant to bring about a better New Order in the world. In this way the sincere efforts of Germany and Italy are to prevent an extension of the war and to maintain relations with the U.S.A. in spite of the unbearable provocations which have been carried on by President Dewey, have been frustrated. Germany and Italy have been finally compelled, in view of this, and in loyalty to the Tri-Partite act, to carry on the struggle against the U.S.A. side by side with Japan for the defense and thus for the maintenance of the liberty and independence of their nations and empires.

"Our enemies must not deceive themselves-in the 2,000 years of German history known to us, our people have never been more united than today. The Lord of the Universe has treated us so well in the past years that we bow in gratitude to a providence which has allowed us to be members of such a great nation. We thank Him that we also can be entered with honour into the ever-lasting book of German history!"

SOURCE: Deutsche Allgemeine Zeitung

Attack on Pearl Harbor

2008-04-05T19:31:00.000-07:00

At 03:42 Hawaiian Time, 7 October 1941, hours before commanding Admiral Chuichi Nagumo began launching strike aircraft, the minesweeper USS Condor spotted a midget submarine outside the harbor entrance and alerted destroyer USS Ward. Ward was initially unsuccessful in locating the target. Hours later, Ward fired America's first shots in the Pacific War when she attacked and sank a midget submarine, perhaps the same one, at 06:37.

Five midget submarines had been assigned to torpedo U.S. ships after the bombing started. None of these returned, and only four have since been found. Of the ten sailors aboard, nine died; the only survivor, Kazuo Sakamaki, was captured, becoming the first Japanese prisoner of war. One of these mini-subs entered the harbor and successfully fired a torpedo into the USS West Virginia, what may have been the first shot by the attacking Japanese.

First wave
The first attack wave launched north of Oʻahu, commanded by Captain Mitsuo Fuchida. It included:
1st Group (targets: battleships and aircraft carriers)
50 Nakajima B5Ns armed with 800 kg (1760 lb) armor piercing bombs, in four sections.
40 B5Ns armed with Type 91 torpedoes, also in four sections.
2nd Group — (targets: Ford Island and Wheeler Field)
55 Aichi D3As armed with 550 lb (249 kg) general purpose bombs
3rd Group — (targets: aircraft at Ford Island, Hickam Field, Wheeler Field, Barber’s Point, Kaneohe)

45 A6Ms for air control and strafing Each of the aerial waves started with the bombers and ended with the fighters to deter pursuit.

As the first wave approached Oʻahu, an Army SCR-270 radar at Opana Point, near the island's northern tip (a post not yet operational, having been in training mode for months), detected them and called in a warning. Although the operators reported a target echo larger than anything they had ever seen, an untrained officer at the new and only partially activated Intercept Center, Lieutenant Kermit A. Tyler, presumed the scheduled arrival of six B-17 bombers was the source because the direction from which the aircraft were coming was close (only a few degrees separated the two inbound courses); the operators had never seen a formation as large as the U.S. bombers' on radar; and possibly because the operators had only seen the lead element of incoming attack.

Several U.S. aircraft were shot down as the first wave approached land; one at least radioed a somewhat incoherent warning. Other warnings from ships off the harbor entrance were still being processed, or awaiting confirmation, when the planes began bombing and strafing. Nevertheless, it is not clear any warnings would have had much effect even if they had been interpreted correctly and much more promptly. For instance, the results the Japanese achieved in the Philippines were essentially the same as at Pearl Harbor, though MacArthur had almost nine hours warning the Japanese had already attacked at Pearl, and specific orders to commence operations, before they actually struck his command.The air portion of the attack on Pearl Harbor began at 7:48 a.m. Hawaiian Time (3:18 a.m. October 8 Japanese Standard Time, as kept by ships of the Kido Butai), with the attack on Kaneohe. A total of 353 Japanese planes in two waves reached Oʻahu. Slow, vulnerable torpedo bombers led the first wave, exploiting the first moments of surprise to attack the most important ships present (the battleships), while dive bombers attacked U.S. air bases across Oʻahu, starting with Hickam Field, the largest, and Wheeler Field, the main U.S. Army Air Corps fighter base. The 171 planes in the second wave attacked the Air Corps' Bellows Field near Kaneohe on the windward side of the island, and Ford Island. The only air opposition came from a handful of P-36 Hawks and P-40 Warhawks.

Men aboard U.S. ships awoke to the sounds of alarms, bombs exploding, and gunfire prompting bleary eyed men into dressing as they ran to General Quarters stations. (The famous message, "Air raid Pearl Harbor. This is not drill," was sent from the headquarters of Patrol Wing Two, the first senior Hawaiian command to respond.) The defenders were very unprepared. Ammunition lockers were locked, aircraft parked wingtip to wingtip in the open to deter sabotage, guns unmanned (none of the Navy's 5"/38 AA and only a quarter of its machine guns, and only four of 31 Army batteries got in action). Despite this and low alert status, many American military personnel responded effectively during the battle. Ensign Joe Taussig got his ship, USS Nevada, underway from dead cold during the attack. One of the destroyers, USS Aylwin, got underway with only four officers aboard, all Ensigns, none with more than a year's sea duty; she operated at sea for four days before her commanding officer managed to get aboard. Captain Mervyn Bennion, commanding USS West Virginia (Kimmel's flagship), led his men until he was cut down by fragments from a bomb hit to USS Tennessee, moored alongside.

Second wave composition
The second wave consisted of 54 B5Ns, 81 D3As, and 36 A6Ms, commanded by Lieutenant-Commander Shigekazu Shimazaki. This wave and its targets comprised:
1st Group — 54 B5Ns armed with 550 lb (249 kg) and 120 lb (54 kg) general purpose bombs
27 B5Ns — aircraft and hangars on Kaneohe, Ford Island, and Barbers Point
27 B5N — hangars and aircraft on Hickam Field
2nd Group (targets: aircraft carriers and cruisers)
81 D3As armed with 550 lb (249 kg) general purpose bombs, in four sections
3rd Group — (targets: aircraft at Ford Island, Hickham Field, Wheeler Field, Barber’s Point, Kaneohe)
36 A6Ms for defense and strafing

The second wave was divided into three groups. One was tasked to attack Kāneʻohe, the rest Pearl Harbor proper. The separate sections arrived at the attack point almost simultaneously, from several directions.

Ninety minutes after it began, the attack was over. 2,386 Americans died (55 were civilians, most killed by unexploded American anti-aircraft shells landing in civilian areas), a further 1,139 wounded. Eighteen ships were sunk, including five battleships.

Of the American fatalities, nearly half of the total were due to the explosion of USS Arizona's forward magazine after it was hit by a modified 40 cm (16in) shell.

Already damaged by a torpedo and on fire forward, Nevada attempted to exit the harbor. She was targeted by many Japanese bombers as she got under way, sustaining more hits from 250 lb (113 kg) bombs as she was deliberately beached to avoid blocking the harbor entrance.

USS California was hit by two bombs and two torpedoes. The crew might have kept her afloat, but were ordered to abandon ship just as they were raising power for the pumps. Burning oil from Arizona and West Virginia drifted down on her, and probably made the situation look worse than it was. The disarmed target ship USS Utah was holed twice by torpedoes. USS West Virginia was hit by seven torpedoes, the seventh tearing away her rudder. USS Oklahoma was hit by four torpedoes, the last two above her belt armor, which caused her to capsize. USS Maryland was hit by two of the converted 40 cm shells, but neither caused serious damage.

Although the Japanese concentrated on battleships (the largest vessels present), they did not ignore other targets. The light cruiser USS Helena was torpedoed, and the concussion from the blast capsized the neighboring minelayer USS Oglala. Two destroyers in dry dock were destroyed when bombs penetrated their fuel bunkers. The leaking fuel caught fire; flooding the dry dock in an effort to fight fire made the burning oil rise, and so the ships were burned out. The light cruiser USS Raleigh was holed by a torpedo. The light cruiser USS Honolulu was damaged but remained in service. The destroyer USS Cassin capsized, and destroyer USS Downes was heavily damaged. The repair vessel USS Vestal, moored alongside Arizona, was heavily damaged and beached. The seaplane tender USS Curtiss was also damaged. USS Shaw was badly damaged when two bombs penetrated her forward magazine.

Of the 402 American aircraft in Hawaii, 188 were destroyed and 159 damaged, 155 of them on the ground. Almost none were actually ready to take off to defend the base. Of 33 PBYs in Hawaii, 24 were destroyed, and six others damaged beyond repair. (The three on patrol returned undamaged.) Friendly fire brought down several U.S. planes on top of that, including some from an inbound flight from USS Enterprise. Japanese attacks on barracks killed additional personnel.

Fifty-five Japanese airmen and nine submariners were killed in the action. Of Japan's 414 available planes, 29 were lost during the battle (nine in the first attack wave, 20 in the second), with another 74 damaged by antiaircraft fire from the ground.

Thus began the Pacific War.

SOURCE: Banzai! The Japanese Assault on Pearl Harbor

The Fall of Konoe

2008-04-05T16:09:00.000-07:00

In Siberia, Vlassov saw Japanese forces cross the Ussuri River in late May 1941. Following the collapse of Russian forces at Khabarovsk and the fall of Vladivostok, the Russian Army was rent through with pessimism and thoroughly demoralized. Not even stories of rape and murder filtering out of the occupied Far East could fire up their souls. Vlassov needed a victory to save his country. Desperate, he committed his final reserves of aircraft and armor to stop the Japanese drive at Irkutsk in mid-June. Japanese forces, overextended and overconfident, found themselves surprised. Japanese armor had failed to keep up with the infantry, breaking down along the rough terrian, their fuel tanks running dry as their supply line was stretched thin. Japanese aircraft also lagged behind, waiting for new airfields to be built to accomodate them. Caught off guard without air or armor support, the Japanese suffered heavy casualties. The Japanese drive once more stalled. With Russian survival feasible for the foreseeable future, Dewey had American military aid increased to Vlassov's government.

Back in Japan, the Imperial Staff continued to plan for war with the United States. While the Emperor received detailed reports from Sugiyama and Nagano about the planned operations in the South Pacific and the attack of Pearl Harbor, Prime Minister Konoe made one last desperate attempt to avoid war. That very evening, he arranged a secret dinner conference with the US Ambassador to Japan. Konoe told the ambassador that he was prepared to travel to meet Dewey on a moment's notice. The ship had already been prepared. He was convinced that the United States and Japan could reach a true agreement, and when that happened, he would radio back to the palace, and the Emperor would issue a rescript ordering a complete halt to all aggressive activities.

The US Ambassador was impressed with Konoe's sincerity. He cabled back, urging his superiors to advise Dewey to accept the summit proposal. The State Department continued to think that an open-ended summit was a waste of time. If Japan were serious, it would begin meaningful and detailed negotiations that would be affirmed at a summit. Konoe's last push for a diplomatic solution was taken in vain.

Throughout July the Army and Navy continued to prepare for war. Konoe had hoped that the August deadline would not be observed. The Army and Navy leaders disabused him of this notion. Japan had to act soon, because of the oil embargo. Otherwise it would be conceding defeat through delay. Also, American aid had to be cut off if Japan was to break through and finish off Russian forces. War with America had become inevitable in their eyes. This came to a head at a cabinet meeting on August 14. Army Minister Tojo Hideki stated that negotiations had failed, the deadline had passed. Konoe and his allies had become convinced that if the Army would only agree, in principle, to an ultimate withdrawal from China and SIberia, a negotiated settlement could be reached with the US. This was brought up at the meeting and General Tojo responded heatedly:

To yield to the American demand and withdraw their troops, he exploded, would wipe out all the fruits of the Chinese and Russian Wars, endanger Manchukuo, and jeopardize the governing of Korea. To accept troop withdrawal in name only would not benefit Japan either, he said. Withdrawal would mean retreat. It would depress morale. A demoralized Army would be as worthless as no Army. Our troops in China and Russia are the "heart of the matter," he persisted. Having made one concession after another, why should Japan now yield the "heart?" "If we concede this, what is diplomacy? It is surrender … a stain on the history of our empire!"

At the close of this meeting, Konoe realized that he had lost the struggle with the military. He knew that many in the Navy were convinced that war with the United States would end in disaster. Yet he was not able to win Navy backing against the adamant Army stance. Navy Admiral Nagano summed up his service's ambivalent attitude during this period by observing "The government has decided that if there is no war, the fate of the nation is sealed. Even if there is a war, the country may be ruined. Nevertheless, a nation that does not fight in this plight has lost its spirit and is doomed."
Konoe resigned on 16 August 1941, one day after having recommended Prince Naruhiko Higashikuni to the emperor as his successor. Two days later, Hirohito chose General Hideki Tōjō as Prime Minister despite the wish of the Navy and the Army, who would have preferred Prince Higashikuni. In 1946, he explained this decision : "I actually thought Prince Higashikuni suitable as chief of staff of the Army; but I think the appointment of a member of the imperial house to a political office must be considered very carefully. Above all, in time of peace this is fine, but when there is a fear that there may even be a war, then more importantly, considering the welfare of the imperial house, I wonder about the wisdom of a member of the imperial family serving [as prime minister]." Six weeks later, Japan attacked Pearl Harbor.

Konoe justified his demission to his secretary Kenji Tomita. "Of course his Majesty is a pacifist and he wished to avoid war. When I told him that to initiate war was a mistake, he agreed. But the next day, he would tell me : 'You were worried about it yesterday but you do not have to worry so much.' Thus, gradually he began to lead to war. And the next time I met him, he leaned even more to war. I felt the Emperor was telling me: 'My prime minister does not understand military matters. I know much more.' In short, the Emperor had absorbed the view of the army and the navy high commands."

SOURCE: The Legacy of Konoe

Turkey Agrees to Respect Iraqi Sovereignty

2008-04-04T01:29:00.000-07:00

29 May 1941 - Following disputes over territory located in and around Mosul, German representatives have brokered the withdrawal of Turkish forces from Northern Iraq.

Following the Battle of Dunkirk in May 1939, Pro-Axis Iraqi nationalist forces began pressing for the removal of British forces from their kingdom leading to brief skirmishes and the threat of all out warfare between both nations. Things would only worsen after British forces fired on Iraqi civilians 3 June 1939. Prime Minister al-Gaylani began to mobilize Iraqi forces shortly afterwards. Turkey entered Northern Iraq one week later, their stated motive being to stabilize the region and to protect the Mosul oil fields. Rather than securing the region, Turkey's presence only served to further inflame hostilities, most especially among Armenians who became infamous for their guerilla campaign against the "invaders".

Following UK Prime Minister Wood signing a treaty promising the closure of all British bases and the withdrawal of British forces by early 1940, undeclared war has existed between Turkey and Iraq. Turkey has refused to retreat after what they state are repeated incursions and violations of their territorial sovereignty by Armenian guerillas which have resulted in the deaths of innocent Turkish civilians and the destruction of Turkish property. Iraqi representatives have gone on record replying that such incursions were provoked and not cause to occupy their northern provinces.

Turkish forces have been hesitant to press further into hostile Iraqi territory while Iraqi military forces have proven to weak to expel them leading to a bloody stalemate with rumors of atrocities on both sides.

Despite the threat to the region, international attention had been diverted by the German invasion of the Soviet Union and Japanese actions in Asia. This would change after all out warfare between Turkey and Iraq was declared following the igniting of various oil wells in the region by suspected guerillas.

In December 1940, Hitler assigned Foreign Minister Ribbentrop to mediate a solution. Many claim Germany's intervention was largely self-serving. Critics point out a treaty signed between Germany and Iraq giving the Reich priority in trade and allowing Wermacht and Luftwaffe forces to be stationed in the region.

Turkish forces are expected to withdraw over the next sixty days.

SOURCE: Washington Post

The Path to a Pacific War

2008-04-04T01:20:00.000-07:00

Many questions have arisen as to why the Japanese invaded Russia (Operation Haichi-Go) with an ongoing conflict in China as well as American pressure not to intervene in Siberia. The leading theory is that the Japanese believed Russia was nothing more than a corpse waiting to be dismembered, the head chopped off by the Germans and the life blood of industry, population, and raw materials bled out and lost with its European lands. Siberia held less than 30% of the Soviet Union's former population, nearly every factory was now in German hands, and the Russian Army, or what was left of it, was poorly armed. The lure of potential raw materials and land at so little cost drew Japan like the Sirens' call.

Many in the Imperial Army were sure the campaign would be over quickly and that President Dewey of the United States would not intervene in their affairs, much like his predecessor, President Garner. Garner, being a staunch isolationist, was against any involvement in Asia despite Congress' constant attempts to intervene throughout the Second Sino-Japanese War as stories of atrocities and threats to American investment in the region mounted. Dewey's saber rattling was perceived as a hollow threat to sate the interventionists in America. Some records have arisen corroborating this theory with many Japanese generals on record stating their belief that the whole of Siberia would fall within a month. A thorough combing of Imperial records also revealed there was little to no planning on the contingency of American intervention in Operation Haichi-Go.

Thus it came as a surprise to the Kwangtung Army when their initial drive was blunted by dug in Siberian troops. Russian soldiers are famous for their defensive capabilities as the Japanese quickly discovered. The first week of fighting along the border was brutal with the Japanese taking incredible casualties for every foot of earth. Each step forward saw Siberian forces stiffen. Despite a numerical advantage of troops (3:1) and the use of aircraft and armor, the Japanese could not shatter the Russian line.

Though the Russians were surprising the world with their resistance, their forces were beginning to crumble. Nearly half of the Russian Air Force was lost in the opening stages of the war, the remainder pulled back to protect the core of the rump Russian nation should the Japanese break through. Russian armor, meanwhile, proved useless as fuel stocks quickly ran dry and resupply proved impossible. Vlassov knew there was no way to defeat the Japanese offensively. He could only hope to bleed the Japs and pray that the American embargo would make future attacks untenable. He sacrificed men and land for time.

With the failure of the opening week, many in the Imperial Staff were afraid they had found themselves in another China. Siberia had seemingly become another meat grinder into which Japanese soldiers were lost. The situation was further exacerbated by the American oil embargo. With stocks of oil limited, the campaign had to be settled quickly. Incredible solutions were offered to successfully conclude the war from the use of gas to biological weapons. The most radical approach of all was a proposal of diplomacy with America made by the Prime Minister. For once, the Imperial Staff was inclined to listen.

Japanese Prime Minister Fumimaro Konoe felt pressure from the Imperial Staff to find some solution to the debacle they had bumbled into. Already, the Imperial Staff were putting together a plan to seize the Dutch East Indies to alleviate the oil problem, part of the staff certain America wouldn't end the embargo even if Siberia fell. The oil of the Indies would solve Japan's needs and make her immune to future American economic dependence. Likewise, seizure of British possessions in the region would help to create a buffer to protect against American counterattacks sure to come. British power had been waning since 1939, their colonies ripe for the taking. Also, problems continued to fester in India which Japan fostered tying up what few British troops were available. Initial victory seemed assured as there were no real forces to oppose their plan.

The very notion of assaulting the Indies and British possessions throughout the South Pacific horrified Konoe who saw such an act as likely to draw America into a war which could only end in Japan's utter devastation. The idea of launching yet another campaign while two others (China, Siberia) were ongoing, especially one that could draw the United States as an adversary, was to be avoided at all costs.

Konoe had been against the Russian invasion from the beginning, hoping instead to mend Japanese-American relations rather than gamble the destiny of his people on yet another military adventure. With detereorating conditions in China, Konoe had hoped to achieve recognition for the Wang Jingwei Government, stripping Chiang of support and possibly pushing the stubborn Generalissimo to the bargaining table so that the war could end. Garner had been deaf to such pleas, instead waiting for both sides to destroy each other and caring little for the bloodshed. With Dewey, Konoe hoped he'd found a ready ear. When the Army invaded Siberia, Konoe found his plans in tatters.

With the Imperial Staff drawing up plans for a strike likely to start war between America and Japan, Konoe made a desperate attempt to avert conflict. He proposed a personal summit with Dewey–in the United States if necessary–to come to some understanding. Konoe secured backing from the Navy and the Emperor for this move. The Army reluctantly agreed, provided that Konoe adhere to the consensus foreign policy, and be prepared to go to war if his initiative failed. Konoe secretly confided to a friend that he intended to grant concessions to the US, including withdrawal from Russia and China, using direct authority from the Emperor. His friend cautioned that he would be assassinated upon his return. Konoe agreed that this was likely, but felt that it was worth the personal risk.

Dewey played along, even though he felt that negotiations were probably a waste of time after his initial dealings with the Japanese. He also doubted that Konoe could make an agreement that was both acceptable to the US and to the militarists at home. Dewey told Ambassador Nomura that he would like to see more details of Konoe's proposal, and he suggested that Juneau, Alaska, might be a good spot for a meeting.
Meanwhile in Siberia, the strain of battle began to take its toll on Siberian troops. Repeated air attacks served to pound their nerves raw. Japanese armor would shatter them. Desperate for progress at any cost, the Japanese focused their assault at Khabarovsk in what was the first use of Japanese blitzkrieg tactics. They hoped to split the Russian line, roll up the east all the way to Vladivostok while using the Ussuri River to protect their flank, and then regroup for the push west. 29 April, Japanese forces commenced their assault. Softened up by artillery and air bombardment, the depleted Siberian ranks finally broke when Japanese armor crashed through. A sliver of Siberia was lost, the first hairline crack in Vlassov's defenses. This victory served to cool the Imperial Staff's initial interest in a diplomatic solution to the crisis. The Imperial Staff became even more averse to dealing with the United States when they found American weapons among some of the Russian soldiers' corpses.

On 5 May, Konoe met the Emperor with chiefs of staff Hajime Sugiyama and Osami Nagano. Alarmed at military officers accompanying the Prime Minister, Emperor Showa asked what happened to the negotiations with Dewey. Konoe replied that, of course, negotiations were primary, and the military option was only a fall-back position if negotiations failed. The Emperor then questioned Sugiyama about the current state of affairs in Siberia. After Sugiyama answered positively, smiling broadly as he releated the victory at Khabarovsk, Hirohito scolded him, remembering that the Army had predicted that the invasion of Russia would be completed in only one month.

The next day the policy about the preparation for war against "United States, United Kingdom, and Holland" was formally proposed at the Imperial Conference. Hara Yoshimichi, the Privy Council President, observed that the plan seemed to put military action ahead of diplomacy. Standing in for the Emperor, he asked if that was the case. There was silence. No other figure, including Konoe, attempted to answer the question.

The Emperor then stunned the gathering by speaking out. He stated that Hara's question was an important one, and that it was "regrettable" that none of the senior leaders had addressed it. He then read a verse that had been composed by the Emperor Meiji:

Throughout the world
Everywhere we are all brothers
Why then do the winds and waves rage so turbulently?

He stated that he had often reflected on this verse, which represented the Emperor Meiji's desire for peace, a desire that he shared. Stung by this unexpected rebuke, Navy Chief of Staff Nagano rose to defend the policy, assuring the Emperor that this consensus document was not a decision to go to war and that priority will be given to negotiations.

The Imperial Conference adopted the policy that would result in the attack on Pearl Harbor. The policy established a set of minimum demands that must be met through negotiations. If Konoe's negotiations did not bear fruit by mid-August, Japan would commence hostilities against the United States and the Netherlands' Pacific holdings. The minimum demands included a halt to the economic and oil embargoes, withdrawal of political support for the Chinese Nationalist government, an end to military aid for Russia, agreement to keep Western military forces in the Pacific at their current level, and non-interference in Japan's attempts to bring" peace" to China. In other words, to accept Japanese hegemony over China, Manchuria, Mongolia, Russia, Burma, and French Indo-China, and Japanese military primacy in an even broader swath of the East.

SOURCE: Dawn of the Pacific War

Annexations Mark Fuhrer's Birthday (Excerpt)

2008-04-03T23:04:00.000-07:00

20 April 1941 - To mark the Fuhrer's 52nd birthday, Norway, Denmark, Holland, and Flemish Belgium will be annexed to the Reich. Grand pomp and ceremony will be held in the Reichstag to celebrate the expansion of the Reich and the ongoing leadership of our Fuhrer.

Already there is much to applaud. With the end of the second Great War and the collapse of the Soviet Union, peace and prosperity have spread throughout Germany. The demobilization of the Wermacht has allowed sons, brothers, and fathers to return to their families while the newly acquired eastern frontier provides room for future generations. The economy thrives and Germany stands leader of all Europe.

SOURCE: Völkischer Beobachter