John Foster Dulles

John Foster Dulles - 34th President of the United States
The first president in American history never to be elected, John Foster Dulles' short term in office (12 July 1944 - 20 January 1946) is considered perhaps the most controversial in the annals of the United States.

Biography
Born in Washington, D.C., he was the son of a Presbyterian minister and attended public schools in Watertown, New York. After attending Princeton University and The George Washington University Law School he joined the New York City law firm of Sullivan & Cromwell, where he specialized in international law. He tried to join the United States Army during World War I but was rejected because of poor eyesight. Instead, Dulles received an Army commission as a Major on the War Industries Board.

Both his grandfather John W. Foster and his uncle Robert Lansing served as Secretary of State.

Political career
In 1918, Woodrow Wilson appointed Dulles as legal counsel to the United States delegation to the Versailles Peace Conference where he served under his uncle, Robert Lansing, then Secretary of State. Dulles made an early impression as a junior diplomat by clearly and forcefully arguing against imposing crushing reparations on Germany. Afterwards, he served as a member of the War Reparations Committee at the request of President Wilson. Dulles, a deeply religious man, attended numerous international conferences of churchmen during the 1920s and 1930s. In 1924, he was the defense counsel in the church trial of Rev. Harry Emerson Fosdick, who had been charged with heresy by opponents in the denomination, a case settled when Fosdick, a liberal Baptist, resigned his pulpit in the Presbyterian Church, which he had never joined. Dulles also became a partner at Sullivan & Cromwell, an international law firm. According to Karlheinz Deschner's book The Moloch, Dulles gave assets of $1 billion to the Nazi party in 1932 after Hitler's election, and according to Stephen Kinzer's 2006 book Overthrow, the firm benefited from doing business with the Nazi regime, and from 1933-1934, Dulles was a public supporter of Hitler. However, the junior partners, led by his brother Allen, were appalled by Nazi activities and threatened to revolt if Dulles did not end the firm's association with the regime. In 1935, Dulles closed Sullivan & Cromwell's Berlin office; later he would cite the closing date as 1934, no doubt in an effort to clear his reputation by shortening his involvement with Nazi Germany.

Dulles was a close associate of Thomas E. Dewey, who became the presidential candidate of the United States Republican Party in the 1940 election. During the election, Dulles served as Dewey's foreign policy adviser. Upon Dewey's election to the presidency, Dulles was appointed Secretary of State. It was Dulles who encouraged Dewey's policy of confrontation with Japan which disastrously brought German invasion.

Secretary of State
As Secretary of State, Dulles was one of the pioneers of brinkmanship. In an article written for Life Magazine in early 1941 to describe America's new aggressive approach towards Japan, Dulles defined his policy of brinkmanship: "The ability to get to the verge without getting into the war is the necessary art."

In a foreshadowing of his confrontational style of politics, Dulles received a standing ovation from Congress when, on February 9, 1941, he argued in one speech that "neutrality has increasingly become an obsolete and, except under very exceptional circumstances, it is an immoral and shortsighted conception."

In his drive to isolate Japan and unify a front against further Imperial expansion, Dulles provided some consternation and amusement to the British, Canadian, Australian, and New Zealand ambassadors by his repeated attempts to tell substantially different versions of events to them. Apparently, unbeknownst to Dulles, the men had all attended Cambridge together and followed up meetings with Dulles by comparing notes and reporting the discrepancies to their home countries.

When the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor, Dulles was not altogether surprised, stating that, "They would drive the Japs back into their caves." However, when Hitler declared war on America, many say they saw the Secretary of State at a loss for words for the first time in his life.

Presidency
Dulles' ascension to the presidency was an unexpected one. Vice-President Charles McNary died February 1944 from complications involving a brain tumor. No new vice-president was named due to Congress' inability to meet in total following repeated attacks on the capital and the war making travel nearly impossible. President Dewey would die in a plane crash, shot down by the Luftwaffe as he attempted to flee Washington D.C. shortly before it fell July 4, 1944. In the confusion following the fall of the American capital, many were unsure exactly who was next in line for presidential succession as no one was sure who was still alive. It would take a week to establish Dulles in office.

Dulles found himself confronted with a difficult situation. American forces had been largely destroyed east of the Mississippi with valuable reserves of manpower now located in German occupied territory along with the bulk of American industry. Army Group South under Colonel General Heinrich von Vietinghoff was tearing through the Dixie states with a ferocity not seen since Sherman while Guderian was consolidating the Wermacht's hold on the east coast as Rommel turned west with his sights set on Chicago.

Dulles was informed by Eisenhower, who had miraculously escaped Washington, that their hold on states east of the Mississippi were untenable and that the best course of action was to gradually withdraw via a scorched earth policy while building a defensive line from Louisiana to Minnesota. This would require the demolition of all known factories, the burning of all crops, and the destruction of bridges and railroad tracks in their retreat in order to leave nothing of value for the enemy. To the surprise of his staff, Dulles said no and instead ordered that a line of communication for possible peace talks be opened through the British.

There have been numerous debates on the exact reason for Dulles' refusal to continue the war. One point is that the plan devised by Eisenhower and the General Staff was not only barbaric (casually outlining the hundreds of thousands of casualties it would accrue while encouraging further destruction to the nation) but would prove wholly inadequate in the long run. The bulk of the American population was in German hands. The ability to raise future armies was unlikely and the industry to arm it was rapidly being lost. There was also the (perceived) threat of an attack from the west by Japan.

A second point made is that Dulles felt overwhelming guilt for having caused the war in the first place. It was his style of diplomacy which forced Japan into an aggressive posture and then drew Hitler's attention. Dulles' game of brinksmanship had killed his friend, Dewey, and nearly destroyed the country. This, coupled with the nadir of American morale, was known to have affected the president deeply. He was seen weeping when told of civilians in Georgia using private weapons trying to hold off Wermacht forces being gunned down. Other atrocities reached his ears but there was nothing he could do to stop it. Ever the religious man, he had to repent this sin of pride and end the war despite what it would do to him. He would become the martyr to save America's future. He had nearly destroyed his country. It was time to sacrifice himself that no one else need die in a war they could not win.

A third point, and the most controversial, is that Dulles had a pro-German attitude which is supported by his past. His attempts to lessen Allied punishments under the Treaty of Versailles, his dealings with Hitler and various German functionaries shortly after the Nazi rise to power, and even donations made to German politicians and businessmen raise questions as to the relationship Dulles had with Hitler and the Nazis; especially after the war when he renewed business contacts with Germany.

1 August 1944, Dulles agreed to an armistice with Germany. On October 31, a peace treaty was signed between the Third Reich and the United States whose main points recognized the following:
The United States had been the aggressor in their conflict
All territory occupied by Germany north of the Ohio River and east of the Mississippi was to remain occupied at American expense (Maine, Vermont, New Hampshire, Connecticut, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, New York, New Jersey, Maryland, Delaware, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Michigan, Indiana, Illinois, Wisconsin, and West Virginia)
The American military was to be limited to a 100,000 man standing army (with no more than 10,000 allowed east of the Mississippi River), light tanks were the only armor allowed in the American forces, a navy set at the limits of the Washington Naval Treaty, and their air force was not to employ bombers
Reparations were to be paid
German inspectors were to be allowed into American territory to ensure that the treaty was being followed
The United States was to drop all trade barriers with Germany
Recognized Germany hegemony over Canada

Dulles would later sign an armistice with Japan in early 1945 which recognized Imperial hegemony over Asia and the Pacific (including Hawaii), and returned Attu, Kiska, and Dutch Harbor to the United States thus ending the Pacific War.

The twin wars effectively over, Dulles authorized the first American elections since 1942 (national elections being hard to outright impossible in the east). Dulles quickly found himself rejected by the Republican Party for its presidential nominee. He would retire from politics branded a traitor, returning to New York to take up international law.

Legacy
Dulles' term in office draws divided opinions. There are those who say he didn't do enough, failing to exhaust every opportunity available before surrendering and stabbed America in the back. Others claim he did too much, pushing America into a war it wasn't ready for and then folding when it came time to take responsibility for it. In the Confederate States, there are many who defend Dulles. They state that Dulles saved them when Eisenhower wanted to render their lands barren and sacrifice them for their own survival.

Dulles' name opens many old wounds, the deepest being America's first loss to a foreign power.

SOURCE: Garfield, Richard American Presidents at a Glance

April 1944 - June 1944

Hitler's order to secure the industrial core of America recommenced in the spring of 1944 when Rommel drove into Ohio reaching Youngstown April 10. American forces, largely National Guard units, offered little resistance as he struck northwest towards Cleveland, taking the city on April 17, before then striking south for Akron.

Guderian's drive into Indiana was just as rapid, Elkhart falling April 13, followed by Ft. Wayne on April 19. The first signs of organized American forces appeared as he approached Muncie, April 25. The VI Corps, under Major General Ernest J. Dawley, had moved east from Illinois in late March, taking up position north of Indianapolis on April 17. When news came of Guderian's march south, Dawley prepared his forces to meet him. It was patrols of the 45th Division which first encountered Wermacht troops outside Muncie on April 25. Brief gunfire was exchanged before American forces withdrew to report German troop movements.

German and American forces would skirmish over the next three days in and around Delaware County with Guderian forcing Dawley gradually southwestward. The fourth day of fighting transpired near the White River, five miles from Yorktown. The river to his rear, Dawley found himself trapped. With a lack of decent armor, only VI Corps' artillery served to deter German charges meant to drive them into the river. This was quickly solved by Guderian's panzers which sliced through the VI's infantry and overran Dawley's main guns. Suffering heavy casualties, many American soldiers dove into the White River swimming across to the southern shore while being shot at by Wermacht rifles and panzer cannons. Scores of bodies would foul the water for weeks to come, some washing up as far as ten miles downriver.

Rommel, meanwhile, had picked up his breathtaking pace reaching Marietta, OH on April 28. There he met parts of the reconstituted II Corps, now commanded by Major General Geoffrey Keyes.

Patton, the former commander of II Corps, had been "promoted" to an inactive front, commander of III Corps at the Presidio in Monterey, CA, due to his controversial dealings with his superiors and subordinates. The press had printed some of Patton's abusive correspondence with Washington greatly angering President Dewey who wouldn't bear his authority being undermined. Dewey was sure Patton had leaked the correspondence as a way to guilt him into action on a list of complaints the general had earlier sent him. To make matters worse was Patton's slapping of a soldier suffering from shell shock following the Battle of Pittsburgh. Patton's abrasive personality drove Eisenhower to move the man as far away as possible for his own good.

Major General Keyes proved an able leader though not as skilled as Rommel who rapidly punctured the American line and rolled up part of II Corps by April 30. Only Keyes deft maneuvering kept the entire II Corps from being enveloped. Part of the reason for this defeat was attributed to II Corps' armor which stood at 65%, manned largely with inexperienced tank crews that had been rushed to the front. Among these tanks was the M5 which saw its first frontline action, performing well under fire but still inadequate against German Panthers.

The Battle of Marietta would end American support for light tanks and lead to the development of medium and heavy tanks. Rommel would complete the annihilation of II Corps over the next four days leaving only 80,000 American troops between him and Washington to the east, but the German commander turned west to link up with Guderian as ordered despite a desire to gamble for the American capital.

In Indiana, Indianapolis was encircled by Guderian April 28 and taken two days later severing a vital transportation hub in a largely bloodless offensive. Guderian would then turn southeast cutting a swath through disorganized American forces, put together piecemeal from whatever was available, on his way to the Ohio border.

Rommel and Guderian would meet in Cincinnati on May 14. Though this served as a major blow to the United States, it was only the beginning of a larger offensive.

Hitler had decided to open a second front in September 1943 following the beating Rommel had taken in Pennsylvania to relieve the pressure on German forces in New England and to put renewed pressure on the American capital. The Fuhrer looked towards a landing somewhere along the Carolina coast. Goering and Raeder would aid Hitler in his planning. What the pair offered up most were doubts.

Goering informed the Fuhrer that landings anywhere south of Virginia would be unsupported by Luftwaffe aircraft, the distance being too great from their airfields in New Jersey and Pennsylvania. Raeder further warned Hitler that should the Carolina landings be successful, there was the possibility that the United States could blockade the coast using parts of the Atlantic and Pacific fleets cutting off the landing force from resupply. Up to this point, the United States had been willing to not call on the Pacific Fleet to augment their Atlantic naval forces, but the German offensive in the south could be viewed as a large enough threat to redeploy parts of the Pacific Fleet to the Atlantic, especially due to the lull that had settled over the west coast. Then there was the problem of landing and amphibious craft which were in short supply. There would need to be designs drawn up, raw materials allocated, workers found, etc. This didn't include the training necessary to prepare troops for the operation. The entire venture was not likely to happen in less than two years at best and even then it was still fraught with a myriad of threats of failure.

But Hitler would not be swayed. The very audacity of the plan, coupled with the fact that it would be the largest amphibious assault in history, mesmerized the German leader. When Raeder and Goering realized the futility of halting preparations, they tried to convince the Fuhrer to move the landing point further north to allow for air support. Hitler would not hear of it. First, the threat of American air forces would be minimal in the Carolinas. Naval reconnaissance had found only four to five squadrons scattered across the area, mostly used for training and coastal patrols. The Fuhrer was quick to point out to Raeder the fact that recent modifications to five merchant ships would provide the Kriegsmarine with additional escort carriers whose fighter complement added up to 30 Bf 109s. Added to the Graf Zeppelin's aircraft, that numbered 40 fighters placing the American to German fighter ratio at roughly around 2:1. German aircraft had proven its supremacy time and again and American air forces would be disorganized coming from several air fields and could, likely, be intercepted before they became a problem. Second, landing anywhere in Virginia was ridiculous with the American troop presence so close to Washington. The invasion force would quickly find itself bogged down by soldiers already on alert and then pushed back into the sea. An attack further south would face minimal opposition allowing for an easier push inland and would also serve to draw off forces opening Washington to the joint forces of Rommel and Guderian leading to the fall of the capital and the end of the United States as a coherent entity.

"American forces are broken," Hitler stated. "All it will take is one more bold stroke to shatter their resolve. Our forces will walk over them to everlasting victory!"

As to the problems of landing craft, Hitler ordered German forces to begin confiscating all merchant and commerical craft in the occupied areas of Canada and New England. They had until summer 1944. Speed and surprise was essential.

The initial phase of the operation, the combined Luftwaffe/Kriegsmarine assault on Newport News in November 1943, served to drive the Atlantic Fleet south. It would be followed by numerous sorties to keep the Atlantic Fleet away from the proposed landing zones and to allow for aerial reconnaissance of the region. With naval success on the American east coast, Hitler ordered plans for an amphibious landing at Charleston to be sped up. He would travel to Philadelphia to set up his American HQ to oversee the Atlantic Theater, coordinating with Rommel, Guderian, Manstein, Goering, and Raeder. Training for the landing was conducted throughout late winter/early spring.

30 May 1944, Raeder initiated the invasion heading south from New Jersey. American forces would be ill-equipped to counter the coming attack, lacking in men and materiel. The American General Staff had become used to Raeder's roaming up and down the east coast over the past year in what was perceived as a useless blockade. Any threat the German Admiral offered, such as shelling of coastal ports, had been kept at bay by coastal aircraft which had markedly increased in northern Virginia. Also, after having overreacted to the joint Luftwaffe and Kriegsmarine attack on Newport News, and with Rommel and Guderian to their west, American commanders were not willing to divert troops to the Carolina shores. In fact, they had diverted troops north to defend against a renewed drive by the Wermacht on Washington. The American Midwest and Washington took priority. Thus, South Carolina was not prepared for the German forces that stormed her shores, having been stripped of a vast amount of divisional strength and mostly used as a training area.

The Battle of Charleston began at 0300, June 6, with a naval barrage accompanied by bombing runs by the Graf Zeppelin's Ju-87s which would render the air strips at Myrtle Beach and Charleston Army Air Fields useless, grounding their squadrons and stripping air supremacy from American forces.
121,000 Wermacht troops ran ashore over the next five hours starting at 0630 in a motley collection of cruise ships, steamers, and other craft overwhelming limited American resistance in what quickly became a debacle for the American High Command. By the time USAAF air support could be called from nearby air fields in Florence and Charlotte, German troops had secured their beachheads and were driving inland. When USAAF forces arrived on the scene, what they found was mass panic. Numerous civilians clogged the roads trying to escape the German drive. What they did not know was that aircraft from the Graf Zeppelin and her escort carriers had been strafing and bombing American civilians in their exodus causing mass panic.

The German invasion of Charleston was only part of the Operation. Following the success of their spring campaign, Rommel and Guderian used the bulk of their forces to stab into West Virginia in a drive aimed at Washington itself meant to divert troops and attention away from South Carolina prior to the amphibious landings. This drive commenced in mid-May and reached as far as Moorefield, WV by June 6. Surprised by the ease of their eastward assault, Rommel and Guderian decided to press further than planned. The first line of defenses surrounding Washington would be shattered three days later.

Washington was in a panic. They had no immediate forces to counter the invasion in South Carolina, Rommel was less than thirty miles away, and the threat of losing the entire east coast was fast becoming a reality. Many voiced the opinion that Washington should be abandoned so that American forces could then focus on crushing the German forces at Charleston while maintaining a coherent defense against German forces from the north. President Dewey refused to abandon the capital citing its symbolic nature. Instead, he ordered that all forces in Virginia be focused on defending the capital while the fleet was to solve the problem in Carolina. Parts of the Pacific Fleet would be diverted east in the weeks to come while the bulk of the Atlantic Fleet was told to move north and engage the Kriegsmarine.

Admiral King issued the command for the Atlantic Fleet to remove the Kriegsmarine from the Carolina coast that the Wermacht in Charleston could be cut off and captured by I Corps. The decisive battle of the Atlantic unfolded June 12 between the Atlantic Fleet and the Kriegsmarine. Raeder was ordered by Hitler himself to hold his position at all costs. Raeder's naval aviators held the sky against American aircraft. The majority of the USAAF pilots were still trainees and quickly overwhelmed by the German aces who tore them apart. The two navies pounded one another across the sea taking numerous casualties. While Ju 87s and Fi 167s rained fire from above, Uboats attacked from the depths. Le Malin class destroyers glided through the churning waters blasting holes in American naval craft with elegant efficiency. Fiery pyres littered the ocean blazing brightly along the horizon.
American naval forces fought on despite their losses, realizing that South Carolina was likely lost if they retreated. Their determination was heroic and shocking to the German sailors who witnessed it. One remarkable event was the ramming of an American cruiser into one of the German escort carriers. Despite their efforts, they were overcome by the Kriegsmarine. Raeder pressed in for the kill virtually decimating the remains of the Atlantic Fleet as it finally turned to retreat south. The Grand Admiral would send his Uboats after them as he took up position off the coast.

SOURCE: Wilder, George Hitler's Great Gamble: The Amphibious Invasion of Charleston

Labour Wins!

24 March 1944 - Clement Atlee's Labour Party has won the general election with a landslide victory and a controlling 145 seats. This was not an unexpected defeat for the Conservatives. With the economic downturn, the loss of India, and two military defeats, their time in office was numbered.

Lord Halifax knew as much, facing a vote of no confidence following the armistice signed with Japan. Rather than endure the humiliation, Halifax set elections and then declared his retirement from politics. Reviled by some, pitied by others, Lord Halifax knew he was hampering his party and bowed out as gracefully as he could.

The Labour Party ran on promises to create full employment, a tax funded universal National Health Service, and a cradle-to-grave welfare state, with the sensational campaign message of 'let us face the future.'

This was the first election in which Labour gained a majority of seats, and also the first time it won a plurality of votes. If it had won another 68,767 or 0.3% of votes it would have had over 50% of all those cast: the closest any party has come a majority of all votes since 1931.

SOURCE: The Herald

United States - 1944

Fall 1943 - Spring 1944

Following Rommel's pause to regroup in late October, America quickly set to work gathering forces for a counterattack. It was not soon coming. Armor and air were largely wrecked and rapidly being rebuilt while reserves of trained men were practically exhausted whether through injury, death, or capture following the failed campaigns against Rommel and Guderian, or were tied up elsewhere in garrison positions. The lack of troops was due to Garner's refusal to fund more than 8 divisions during his term. Dewey had fought to ramp up training in the early days of his administration but had only managed roughly 50 divisions by 1943.

This limitation of trained soldiers created problems. First there was the necessity of training, these men needed for cadres to prepare the next crop for battle. Second was the issue of keeping parts of the nation secure which led into the third, and most problematic, issue. Many regions, especially the West Coast, were against diverting troops from their borders. Legislators and Governors from California to Washington State lobbied to keep a sizable troop presence following numerous attacks by the Japanese on military installations, such as Ft. Stevens in Oregon, civilian facilities like those at Goleta, CA, or the largely undefended forests of the Pacific Northwest. Only luck had prevented a catastrophe thus far and many feared, should American forces be withdrawn, the Japs would pour across their shores much like they had at Hawaii, a traumatic event still recent in the minds of Americans. Hysteria gripped California worst of all with many believing an invasion was at most only weeks away. Their efforts served to hamper military operations in the country. In the end, Dewey was forced to draw troops from the relatively secure south.

Another problem which was becoming increasingly apparent was a drop in industrial output. The Germans had managed to knock out roughly one third of America's shipyards, one half of steel production, and were close to seizing the manufacturing core of heavy machinery in the country in its entirety. Manpower issues also arose as nearly every white male was pressed into uniform. Women and blacks were becoming the norm in factories and working hours were being extended, sometimes to the point that accidents became a regular occurrence. In the south, there was considerable anger that black men should work in close proximity to white women leading to strained tensions. This was not helped by the perception of southern troops that they were being singled out and shipped north as fodder.

As troops were being moved north for an offensive against Rommel, American plans were largely disrupted by Raeder and Goering's joint air/naval effort in mid-November on the coast of Virginia. Dewey's commanders feared it was the beginning of an amphibious landing meant to open a second front and quickly rerouted troops to the Atlantic shore. Despite this military presence, the Luftwaffe and Kriegsmarine left the naval yards at Newport News in ruins. The Kriegsmarine would remain a constant presence on America's East Coast, sometimes venturing as far south as the Carolinas disrupting American shipping and shelling cities. American commanders would wait until early January before once more planning for an offensive north.

Meanwhile, Goering turned his attention to Washington itself. Aerial bombings became the norm as American leaders debated whether or not to remain in the capital. Some believed the President should withdraw either south or west to safer territory to conduct the war. Dewey would not be swayed. If American citizens were to see him retreat, it would be disastrous for morale. American soldiers were used to ring the city against the expected German approach. They spent months digging fortifications.

To the north, German forces were becoming irritated with guerilla activity in their rear. American and Canadian partisans continually threatened their thinly stretched supply lines throughout the autumn and winter of 1943. What these partisans had not counted on were the brutal methods Heydrich would use to silence them. In one of the darker moments of the Atlantic War, Heydrich had the entire town of Malone, NY executed for aiding and housing partisans responsible for the murder of an SS man. Shock traveled throughout the state. Though many vowed vengeance, partisan activity noticeably dropped in the short term. This was followed by an intense search and seizure of all weapons from civilians in the occupied areas with threats of draconian punishment if any weapons were not registered and turned over to SS authorities. Heydrich also took to starving non-cooperative regions. This was not simply done to punish the locals but also because food stocks were not adequate for the occupied areas. German needs came first, the rest rationed amongst the populace. Many starved to death in the bleak winter of 43.

One shocking development that began in New England was American citizens of German heritage, both born and naturalized, stepping forward to join SS forces as valuable liasion officers. Of course, many of these men had been interned at the beginning of the war as security threats only to be later freed by Wermacht forces. Urged on by Kuhn, the appointed American leader of occupied America, they willingly joined the movement though their numbers were mostly in the hundreds. This "treasonous activity", as well as collaboration among the populace with their German occupiers, served to divide communities as no one knew who to trust.

A major blow for the American effort was also received in early 1944 when the United Kingdom formerly signed an armistice with the Japanese Empire. With their base in India lost, economic setbacks at home, and pressure on the domestic front over losses both territorial and human, PM Wood was forced to sue for terms. Australia would condemn Wood as a traitor for abandoning the war effort. With Britain out of the war and their lifeline to America cut off, many Aussies feared an invasion by Japan was soon to come.

What the Australians did not know was that, for all intents and purposes, Japan was through with the war. With peace achieved following the collapse of Chiang Kai-Shek's forces, Vlassov's truce, and Halifax's armistice, Japan's entire western border was safe. They held hegemony over a large swath of Siberia, China proper, Southwest Asia, and the Pacific as well as had an ally in India. Australia did not have the strength to force them back from New Guinea, and the United States was embroiled in a continental war with Germany. Also, Japan had found its shipping stretched to the limit and its troops too thinly distributed to even think of yet another invasion. There was a large enough problem holding what they now had. There were the aerial and naval attacks on Australia and the United States but these were to put pressure on both governments to sue for peace.

By April 1944, Rommel and Guderian were ready to resume their offenses aimed at meeting in Cincinnati.

SOURCE: Thackeray, Raymond The Eye of the Storm: The Lull in the American Campaign

Fritz Kuhn - Leader of America

14 December 1943 - Alongside Quisling and Petain, one may also add Fritz Kuhn. A naturalized citizen, the leader of the American Bund of National Socialism has been annointed leader of occupied America. Winner of the Iron Cross in the Great War and one of the most feared men in the United States, this figure has risen to challenge President Dewey's role as leader of our nation. Already he has declared his intent to inter all Jews, Blacks, and other "subhumans" for use as slave labor to ensure the victory of Hitler in America and to strengthen future generations. He has also given his consent to the Nazis seizure of factories to produce war materiel.

President Dewey and Congress have declared Kuhn a traitor and vow to capture and execute the collaborationist.

SOURCE: Miami Herald

Japanese to be Interned

14 December 1943 - Following the treasonous turn of the Nissei in Hawaii, President Dewey has authorized the internment of all Japanese within American borders. Congress lauded his decision, saying it would make America safer.

In the past, President Dewey had refused to sign such a bill stating that it "only served to divide rather than unite the nation in these dire times." The president did concede to legislation requiring the registration of all Japanese citizens with local law enforcement as a precautionary measure back in 1942. Congress had repeatedly stated that this was not enough.

With the Imperial Navy so close to our shores, there has been increased fear of Japanese invasion on the west coast. Anonymous reports of strange aircraft in California have only heightened the hysteria.

A large majority of America has come to doubt the patriotism of Japanese citizens, seeing potential spies in their midst. One has only to look to those collaborating with Imperial troops in Hawaii to understand this mistrust.

Ten camps have been planned for the relocation effort. 110,000 Japanese are expected to be transported in the coming months.

SOURCE: Courier-Journal

The Invasion of Hawaii

With the fall of China in mid-October, the Japanese were finally willing to commit to a full scale invasion of Hawaii. By December 1943, Japan initiated its assault. With fuel stocks depleted, the USAAF was unable to challenge Japanese aircraft as it soared over the islands strafing American forces, defending the Japanese landings. Oahu was first. The US Army's emaciated soldiers failed to hold back the charging Imperial troops. Pushing inland, Japanese soldiers discovered atrocities. Tales of cannibalism were related to the Japanese by Nissei who had been rounded up in camps and systematically butchered to feed the citizens. They also spoke of being beaten by American soldiers and used as slave labor to haul around equipment when fuel had run out. For the smallest offense, many were shot point blank. Others were raped. Imperial troops were quick in capturing and executing every American soldier they could find. They would also commit violent acts of murder and rape against the white civilian inhabitants as retribution.
With Oahu in their hands, and the sad state of American forces revealed, Japanese forces expanded their operations seizing the remainder of the chain throughout the end of December. Plans were drawn up to begin rebuilding the former naval installations. The Nissei became willing supporters of the Japanese, renouncing their American citizenship following the vile treatment they had received at the hands of American forces. The rays of the Imperial standard extended further eastward.

SOURCE: Yoshi, Hiramato Shores of Blood: The Atrocities of Hawaii

The Fall of Chiang Kai-Shek

By October, the combined forces of the Sichuan Clique and Japanese forces had managed to shatter the Kuomintang Army and capture Chiang Kai-Shek. Wang Jingwei offered positions in the Provisional Government to the Sichuan Clique comparable to those they had had under Chiang with added benefits which they were quick to accept.
Chiang was tried and found guilty of treason to the Chinese state. He would be executed November 27, 1943.

With the Provisional Government now in full control of the country, Wang Jingwei signed a treaty with Japan recognizing Manchukuo, Menjiang, the Xinjiang Republic, and numerous trade policies which favored the Japanese Empire. It also allowed for Japanese occupation at key points throughout China and limited China's military size and composition.

The communists under Mao would struggle on though without military aid they found their support faltering. The Japanese and Provisional forces destroyed every village suspected of helping the communists, killing hundreds of thousands and eroding all support for the guerillas until Mao would be captured in 1945, given up by a traitor in his own ranks.

SOURCE: Liu Bao The Fall of the Kuomintang

The German Drive for Pittsburgh and Detroit

By the close of August 1943, the American pocket centered around Boston had been conquered putting virtually all of New England under German occupation. Rommel took the next few weeks to rest and resupply for the drive on Pittsburgh. Rommel's drive was slated for September 16, to be joined by a simultaneous drive south by Guderian aimed at Toronto and then Detroit.

When their drives commenced, Guderian discovered a distinct stiffening of Allied forces the further south he went. Allied forces had used the lull to build up their defenses. This was further aided by terrain. As the land narrowed at the approach of the Great Lakes, the Allies were able to concentrate their forces into tighter and tighter formations which would negate German maneuver. Toronto fell within the first week of Guderian's drive. After that initial victory, it was a slow, steady push into Allied territory.

Rommel made rapid progress through Northern and Central New Jersey, capturing Newark and then advancing into Pennsylvania within five days. Rommel diverted south, taking Philadelphia within the week and pocketing Southern New Jersey before moving west toward Pittsburgh, splitting off part of his forces to finish off what American forces remained centered around Atlantic City. The bulk of his forces would cross the Susquehanna River three days later. Patton waited at Harrisburg. The battle that followed lasted three days (October 3-6), Patton ultimately making a fighting retreat.

In Canada, Guderian ground his way through Allied lines. Paratroopers were used to secure the Blue Water Bridge against demolition. German losses were heavy as they struggled to hold onto the bridge against fierce American/Canadian assaults. When Guderian arrived, only one company remained of the battalion that had originally been dropped. The German position was further compromised by American naval forces sailing across the Great Lakes into the St. Clair River, firing at will on Guderian's forces and attempting to destroy the bridge the Wermacht were pouring across. Hundreds of Luftwaffe aircraft soared through the sky scoring hit upon hit on the naval aircraft lighting the night sky with pillars of flame. Veterans would later call it one of the most nightmarish days in the war. Death was everwhere, the cold autumn wind lashing the combatants. The bridge collapsed under repeated naval fire slowing the German drive by a week and effectively ending the battle. Guderian's engineers would work feverishly to repair the bridge achieving miraculous progress.

Tens of thousands of American troops rushed to halt Guderian's renewed thrust toward Detroit including naval recruits training on the Great Lakes. The ferocity of American attacks shocked Guderian who authorized the use of flamethrowers to push back Allied assaults. It was largely a disorganized affair, American forces accepting anyone able to carry a rifle into their ranks. But with the majority of American armor committed to Pennsylvania, Guderian rode down all opposition. Detroit fell on October 16. Guderian would mop up American forces throughout Eastern Michigan over the next month while preparing a drive on Indianapolis.

Rommel sped west against minimal opposition toward Pittsburgh. He reached the outskirts of the city on October 18. Once more, Patton waited for him. The Battle of Pittsburgh stretched for a week. An advantage Patton had that he had lacked in previous engagements with Rommel was air support. He had gathered every available squadron he could find after browbeating his way up the chain of command until he reached Eisenhower himself. The threat of losing nearly half of American steel production was enough to convince Allied commanders of Patton's need for aircraft and further supply. Across the sky and over the ground, German and Allied forces clashed shaking the very foundations of the Earth. With numerical superiority, Patton willingly sent wave after wave at Rommel from all sides. Planes fell across the field of battle, streaking like falling stars across the horizon. One Luftwaffe pilot crashed spectacularly into Loew's Penn Theater setting off a minor fire in the city. Rommel himself would recount in his memoirs "It was the most hellish experience of my life. It was as if the sky were falling and hell itself were opeing up, American soldiers screaming like demons as they ran toward us. Their eyes flared with hate."

When the tide of battle began to shift, Patton refused to retreat. If Pittsburgh were to fall, the blow to America would be enormous. He gambled everything, committing his reserves rather than retreating once again. Casualties were enormous for both sides. In the end, the battle came down to armor and air. The Luftwaffe gradually regained control of the sky, setting their sights on American ground forces. Patton's armor had been decimated by frequent charges at Rommel's lines. Despite his repeated shots, Wermacht forces held with their 88s. Now Rommel was ready to unleash his reserve. Patton found himself encircled. Only at great effort and loss of life did he manage to escape with a small contingent. The II Corps was no more.

Despite victory, Rommel's battle strength was shattered. He was left at 40% strength in armor and had suffered well over 50% casualties. He would not be ready for offensive operations for well over two months. Despite the losses, Hitler was ecstatic. The core of American steel was seized and a vast swath of American industry now lay in German hands or was destroyed. Further, Washington D.C. was now in striking range by air.

Despite their animosity, Raeder and Goering began planning a joint air/naval offensive aimed at the Newport News Naval Yards and Washington. With Luftwaffe support, the Kriegsmarine would once more venture into waters off Virginia in order to destroy the naval yard and then move on to attack America's capital. Occupation was not the goal. Destruction and fear were. With air reserves spent on the defense of Pittsburgh, all Washington had to defend itself was the weak Atlantic Fleet.

SOURCE: Williams, Trent Through the Gates of Hell: Autumn 1943

Sichuan Clique Switches Sides!

21 September 1943 - The Sichuan Army has parted ways with Chiang Kai-shek threatening to bring down Nationalist forces in China. Representing over a quarter of Nationalist forces, the Sichuan Army broke from Nationalist ranks via an alliance between faction leaders Yang Sen, Liu Wenhui, Deng Xihou, and Tian Songyao. All had grown tired and bitter over the three sided war devastating China and Chiang's handling of domestic affairs. With the United States suffering through a war on two fronts, the British retreating from India, and all hope of supply gone, the Sichuan Clique had finally had enough. There had been grumbling over the decline in their independence under Chiang and rumors that the Nationalist leader had poisoned one of their own, Liu Xiang, in order to exert greater control over Sichuan Province.

Chiang Kai-shek finds himself in a desperate battle to hold onto Sichuan. There are fears that if he allows one ally to desert him, others will follow.

Wang Jingwei has already voiced his support for Sichuan Province to join his Provisional Government and to oust the rebellious Chiang. Japanese, Mengjiang, and Provisional Chinese forces have begun an assault south through eastern Gansu into Sichuan in what many believe to be the final showdown between Japanese and Chinese forces. Should Sichuan fall, Chiang's capital, Chengdu, would fall with it and possibly spell the end of organized Kuomintang resistance.

SOURCE: The Daily Telegraph

The Twin German Drives and an Atlantic Threat

Adolf Hitler flew to the Wermacht's Canadian HQ in March 1943 to meet with Field Marshal von Manstein to discuss the future of their American campaign. With American forces in disarray, Manstein was ordered by Hitler to split his forces for a drive west to capture Ottawa and a drive south towards New York City. Hitler believed that the fall of their capital would knock the Candians out of the war while the capture of NYC would serve a heavy blow to the American economy and cut off Massachussetts, Connecticut, and Rhode Island which the Kriegsmarine could then effectively blockade. A subsequent use for Ottawa was for an eventual drive south past Toronto into Michigan aimed at Detroit. As to the future of the New York drive, Hitler intended to first mop up American forces in Massachussetts, Connecticut, and Rhode Island and then push southwest toward Pittsburgh.

Manstein balked at splitting his forces when success was being achieved along the east coast. Manstein instead wanted to focus on a drive south aimed at Pittsburgh and then west into Ohio, Indiana, and finally Michigan. Hitler retorted that his plan was one giant pincer movement rather than a vulnerable scythe-like sweep. With success on the east coast and success in Michigan, the Wermacht could envelop Indiana and Ohio without a risk to its flanks. Also, Hitler's plan allowed for Detroit being captured early depriving America of one of its most important industrial and transportation hubs. It would also create a large pocket preventing a sizable number of American forces from escaping across the Mississippi River. Manstein would relent in the face of Hitler's adamant views. Rommel would be tasked with the drive south aimed at New York and then Pittsburgh. The drive west was given to Guderian. Manstein did this despite the protests of the General Staff. He realized the talents of Guderian and was not going to have them squandered by sycophants.

Loathed by the OKH for his independent streak and blunt language, Guderian had garned few allies in the upper echelons of German military authority. But the man got results and that was enough to keep his detractors at bay though promotion was another problem. Guderian realized the opportunity Manstein had given him and seized it with great enthusiasm. At the outset of his drive west, Guderian was surprised at the rapid progress he made. Canadian and American forces proved unable to counter his drive, their tanks poorly designed and their leadership amateurish. He would describe Allied battle techniques as blunt, savage, and simple using numbers to overwhelm and counter his forces when they could not outthink him. He also cited their lack of discipline, some units effectively crumbling at the thundering advance of his panzers. If not for supply problems, Guderian stated he could have taken Ottawa in two months. Instead, he would reach the Canadian capital by late August. PM King would declare it an open city. Following news of the Blitz in New York, King refused to have Ottawa's citizens suffer while the city was reduced to ruins. Hitler heaped great praise and awards on Guderian for his successful drive. The Fuhrer's lauding quickly turned to condemnation when PM King declared Canada would fight on.
Rommel's drive into the United States, meanwhile, intially met with the same success as Guderian. Maine, New Hampshire, and Vermont fell within a month as Rommel and his Ghost Divisions stormed through New England. He entered New York via Granville on May 12. Meanwhile, there was a shake up of command in the American Army ranks.

Following the defeats of the U.S. II Corps by the Wermacht in the Canadian Campaign, General Dwight D. "Ike" Eisenhower wanted an assessment of the corps. After the losses of New Brunswick and the retreat into Maine, Eisenhower sent Major-General Omar Bradley to observe the conditions of the II Corps operationally.

On 16 April 1943, as a result of Bradley's report, Patton replaced Major-General Lloyd Fredendall as commander of the II Corps. Patton was also promoted to Lieutenant-General. Soon thereafter, Patton had Bradley reassigned to his Corps Command as deputy commander.

Tough in his training, Patton was generally unpopular with his troops. However, they preferred to serve with him because they thought he was their best chance to get home alive. US officers had noted the "softness" and lack of discipline in the II Corps under Fredendall. Patton required all personnel to wear steel helmets, even physicians in the operating wards, and required his troops to wear the unpopular lace-up leggings and neckties. A system of fines was introduced to ensure all personnel shaved daily and observed other uniform requirements. While these measures did not make Patton popular, they did tend to restore a sense of discipline and unit pride that may have been missing earlier. In a play on his nickname, troops joked that it was "his guts and our blood".

The discipline Patton required paid off quickly. Realizing Rommel's willingness to drive ahead brashly, Patton had his troops surrender ground in Maine, New Hampshire, and Vermont to stretch Rommel's supply line, drawing him in and leaving him vulnerable on the flanks. By mid-May 1943, the counter-offensive of the U.S. II Corps began. At the Battle of Troy, Rommel was surprised by American forces. Patton pressed from the northwest threatening Rommel's flank using prototype bazookas to help him even the odds against German panzers, sowing confusion among the Wermacht's ranks. Only desperate action, personally led by himself, prevented Rommel from being cut off. The use of the 88s withering fire barely forced American armor back, sometimes at a distance of only fifty yards in what amounted to virtual hand to hand fighting. Patton sent wave after wave against the German line threatening a breakthrough at several points. Patton's success would be cut short. Luftwaffe forces were diverted from their assault on New York City to aid Rommel. With total air supremacy, the Luftwaffe straffed II Corps mercilessly sending the American drive into disarray. Patton would become legendary for standing up in his jeep at the approach of a Messerschmitt Bf 109 and pulling his pistol in a showdown. Soldiers watched in awe as the plane missed, Patton firing and cursing the pilot as he soared away.

Reluctantly, Patton withdrew to reorganize and plan. Rommel gained a great deal of respect for the general who blunted his drive and the American troops who proved their willingness and ability to fight. The German commander would not underestimate American military strength again.

Over the next two months, the generals would spar throughout New York until a decisive showdown in July at the Battle of New York, ten miles from the Bronx. Once more, air supremacy proved the deciding factor as Patton's forces were battered from above and by Rommel's forces across the field. II Corps would limp into New Jersey at only 50% strength. Patton became infamous in Washington for his missives demanding the USAAF develop something capable of "covering his ass" because he was tired of "Goering's fairies whipping it while he was trying to win a war."

President Dewey and his commanders had problems beyond Patton's. The Kriegsmarine had become emboldened by Admiral King's stretching of the American Atlantic Fleet along the East Coast. Grand Admiral Raeder was determined to seize control of the East Coast in order to both prevent the resurgence of American naval might, which was inevitable unless their ports and shipyards were either captured or destroyed, and to steal Hitler's attention away from Goering's posturing over the Luftwaffe's importance in razing NYC and saving Rommel's drive from defeat.
Raeder massed a strike force and made for New Jersey. Included in this group was the Graf Zeppelin which had recently arrived. Raeder's intent was to cut off King's northern fleet and decimate it before moving south to Virginia where he intended to draw off more of the Atlantic Fleet. Hitting so close to the capital of the United States would not only shake American resolve, it would also shut Goering up. Likewise, with the Graf Zeppelin, Raeder hoped to show the effectiveness of carriers to the Fuhrer in the hopes of reopening the Flugzeugträger program. He would then withdraw back to German controlled waters for a blockade of New England.

The first phase of Raeder's plan went perfectly. July 8, 1943, outnumbered and caught off guard, American naval craft north of Cape May were completely decimated. Raeder made excellent use of the Graf Zeppelin's aircraft for reconaissance and attack as well as Uboats to confuse American forces. Two American destroyers were sunk before Raeder's battleships even came within range. The sole survivor of the initial attack, the USS New York, was sunk as she fled south. Massachussetts, Rhode Island, and Connecticut were essentially cut off for Rommel's eventual invasion.

Shock traveled throughout Washington. No one had expected the Kriegsmarine to make a move south so soon. Admiral King immediately called all available ships north to guard the capital. He also had all available aircraft put on alert.

Raeder, realizing the threat of American coastal aircraft, sought to draw the Atlantic Fleet away from Virginia. He shelled Dover, DE July 14 in order to draw King's attention. American aircraft did little damage as the Kriegsmarine retreated to open waters shortly after the opening salvos. A few days later, Raeder shelled Georgetown, DE. Once more, American aircraft did little damage as the Kriegsmarine slipped away. These hit and run missions would continue for the next two weeks sending citizens in the region into hysterics, as Raeder intended. He knew public pressure would eventually force the United States to respond.

By the end of July, Admiral King had gathered enough of the Atlantic Fleet together to push northward under Rear Admiral Arthur L. Bristol. He was given orders by King to find and, if possible, destroy the Kriegsmarine's strike force in detail. Should such occur, Bristol was given permission to venture north to relieve Massachussetts and attempt to disrupt the German's North Atlantic supply line. Only one aircraft carrier, USS Ranger, accompanied the American naval support force.

A picket line of Uboats off the coast of Delaware noticed the support force heading north and shadowed them, relaying information when possible to Raeder.

August 5, 1943, Raeder decided it was time to meet the enemy. He launched his entire complement of 20 Fieseler Fi 167 torpedo bombers and 20 Junkers Ju 87 dive bombers escorted by 10 Messerschmitt Bf 109 fighters to seek out and destroy the USS Ranger as well as other parts of the Atlantic Fleet. The USS Ranger took priority.

The Graf Zeppelin's aircraft found the USS Ranger at 0714 hours. German aircraft caught the American force by surprise, hidden by the glare of the rising sun. A handful of American aircraft launched before the Kriegmarine's bombers arrived. Within half an hour the Ranger was a smoking wreck, taking on water, her flight deck pitted and useless. The German aircraft would also score hits on several other ships before returning to the Graf Zeppelin to rearm. They had suffered 2 Fi 167 dive bombers as casualties. All American naval aircraft were lost. The sky was Raeder's and he approached the support force for the kill.

What followed was the equivalent of a slugging match between the two forces. Though both fleets were roughly comparable, Raeder's aircraft tilted the balance. After suffering the loss of two cruisers and a destroyer, the Atlantic Fleet was ordered to withdraw back to Virginia. Raeder pursued them, sinking the battleship USS Texas, until the threat of coastal aircraft forced him to retreat.

The Atlantic Fleet suffered a bloody nose and would not resume offensive operations. Raeder, meanwhile, received accolades from the Fuhrer who was more than willing to begin the building of new carriers after the demonstration raeder had provided. Hitler also acceded to Raeder's opinion that the naval arm of the Luftwaffe should come under Raeder's command, citing difficulties had during the Atlantic campaign of trying to communicate with Luftwaffe commanders on the mainland. Goering fumed but had to accept it.

SOURCE: Klum, Roolf Raeder: Father of the Kriegsmarine

Speer's Bold Plan

Armaments Minister since February 1942, Albert Speer worked wonders with a German industrial sector rife with waste. He found himself incessantly hindered by party politics and a lack of cooperation from the Nazi hierarchy. Nevertheless, by slowly centralising almost all industry control and cutting through the dense bureaucracy, he succeeded in multiplying war production.

Yet even the miracles Speer worked with the German economy could not solve the problem facing the Wermacht in North America. With the supply line so long and the campaign so broad, deficiencies in parts and ammunition began to grow.

Part of the problem was transport. Ships were being used to ferry soldiers to Germany as fast as they could placing a limit on the amount of supplies that could be shipped. The same was to be said of air transport. Another piece of the puzzle was labor. With so many men being called up, factories found themselves emptied of workers. There was also the issue of the American campaign itself. Terrain was rugged and the kilometers traveled vast taking a toll on German panzers, personnel carriers, and other transports.

Innovative solutions arose at the local level. Many commanders ordered their men to forage for food when supplies were late in coming. Local populations were also made use of for supply issues such as flat tires, mechanical parts, and fuel. Some civilian vehicles were even pressed into German service.

The labor issue was another matter. Initially, Speer accepted Himmler's offer and made use of foreign as well as forced labor to fill in the gap. Even then, the immense demand of the home consumer economy (which Hitler refused to sacrifice) coupled with the massive campaign in America was too much for the German industrial sector to handle.

It was then that an idea came to the Armaments Minister. Some of the land conquered in Eastern Canada as well as parts of Northeastern America had factories. Why not press them into service? The factories themselves would have to be retooled, but to have an industrial base so close would shorten the delivery time of parts and increase German production. They need not be used for sensitive items such as aircraft, panzers, or troop weapons but they could be used to manufacture parts and ammunition. The only question was who were to work in those factories? Surely, the Canadians and Americans would not willingly aid the fight against their nations. Yet the thought of transporting labor from Europe to America also seemed preposterous. Once more, Himmler offered to help in the situation. He tasked Reinhard Heydrich with organizing occupied America into a productive contributor of the Third Reich.

Heydrich would arrive in Saint John on 13 April 1943. Shortly thereafter, SS would follow. They placed all conquered American lands under their administration. They would go through official records and draw up plans on how to reorganize the territory. Within a month they acted. Land was taken from the local populace for camps and factories deemed adequate seized. To fill these, Heydrich ordered the use of prisoners of war in the factories. When these men refused to work, Heydrich was quick to cut their rations, torture, and execute them one by one until they agreed to take their stations. Within six months, Heydrich had accomplished his goals.

SOURCE: Wright, Herbert Traitors to Their Nation: The Economics of War

The Siege of Hawaii

By December 1942, Japanese forces had successfully reached and begun to blockade the Hawaiian Islands after a skirmish that saw the remnants of the American Pacific Fleet retreat to San Francisco. Following the Battle of Midway, American naval power in the Pacific was at its nadir and unable (some would say unwilling) to hold back the advancing Imperial Fleet of Japan.

Over the next two months, Japan worked at cutting Hawaii's supply lines and eroding its military capabilities. Japanese Zeroes battled a desperate American USAAF. Though they fought valiantly, the American pilots would eventually succumb not due to Japanese superiority but to a lack of fuel and parts. Once air supremacy had been established, the Japanese began to bomb every military target they could find. Special importance was placed on Pearl Harbor's fuel storage, maintenance, and dry dock facilities. The noose became tighter.

An American naval response to lift the siege was not to be had. With the German campaign raging along the east coast and the successful Nazi attack on the Panama Canal, the American fleet was simply not able to be everywhere it needed to be. Dewey reluctantly left Hawaii to its fate as the country rushed to rebuild the shattered Pacific Fleet.

Food supplies on the islands were largely gone by early June 1943. The population of the islands was too big to support natively. Other supplies, such as medical, became scarce leading to a rise in deaths from infection. Black outs became common, the power plants systematically destroyed by the IJN, though often rebuilt with what materials Hawaiians could scrounge up.

The situation would become strained. Some citizens grumbled over the fact that the Army got precedence when it came to food stocks, sometimes forcibly expropriating food at rifle point. Others wanted the Japanese population (Nissei), locked up fearing they were working with the enemy. One radical idea was to use the Nissei as a bargaining chip with the IJN, using them as hostages for food, fuel, and supplies.

Starvation was a cruel weapon the Japanese were all too willing to use. After the death toll of the Midway invasion, the Japanese were not willing to attempt a landing on another island and relive the horrific experience. They were inclined to grind down American forces and then simply step over their emaciated bodies.

SOURCE: Yamauchi, Minoru The Siege of Hawaii

The Royal Indian Navy Mutiny

The Royal Indian Navy mutiny (also called the Bombay Mutiny) encompassed a total strike and subsequent mutiny by Indian sailors of the Royal Indian Navy on board ship and shore establishments at Bombay harbour on 18 June 1943. From the initial flashpoint in Bombay, the mutiny spread and found support throughout British India, from Karachi to Calcutta and ultimately came to involve 78 ships, 20 shore establishments and 20,000 sailors.

The RIN Mutiny started as a strike by ratings of the Royal Indian Navy on 18 June in protest against general conditions. The immediate issue of the mutiny was conditions and food, but there were more fundamental matters such as racist behaviour by Royal Navy personnel towards Indian sailors, and disciplinary measures being taken against anyone demonstrating pro-nationalist sympathies. The strike found immense support among the Indian population, already gripped by the stories of the Indian National Army. The actions of the mutineers were supported by demonstrations which included a one-day general strike in Bombay. The strike spread to other cities, and was joined by the Royal Indian Air Force and local police forces. Naval officers and men began calling themselves the "Indian National Navy" and offered left-handed salutes to British officers. At some places, NCOs in the British Indian Army ignored and defied orders from British superiors. In Madras and Pune, the British garrisons had to face revolts within the ranks of the Indian Army. Widespread rioting took place from Karachi to Calcutta. Notably, the mutinying ships hoisted two flags tied together — those of the Congress and the Muslim League, signifying the unity and demarginalisation of communal issues among the mutineers.

The mutiny was initiated by the ratings of Indian Navy on 18 June 1943. It was a reaction to the treatment meted out to ratings in general and the lack of service facilities in particular. On 16 May 1943, a contingent of 67 ratings of various branches arrived at Castle Barracks, Mint Road, in Fort Mumbai. This contingent had arrived from the basic training establishment, HMIS Akbar, located at Thane, a suburb of Bombay, at 1600 in the evening. The sailors allege later that evening they had been served sub-standard food in comparison to British sailors. Only 17 ratings took the meal, the rest of the contingent went ashore to eat in an open act of defiance. It has since been said that such acts of neglect were fairly regular, and when reported to senior officers present it practically evoked no response, which certainly was a factor in the buildup of discontent. The ratings of the communication branch in the shore establishment, HMIS Talwar, drawn from a relatively higher strata, harboured a high level of revulsion towards the authorities, having complained of neglect of their facilities fruitlessly.

The INA trials, the stories of Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose, as well as the stories of INA's fight during the Siege of Imphal were seeping into the glaring public-eye at the time. These, received through the wireless sets and the media, fed discontent and ultimately inspired the sailors to strike. In Karachi, mutiny broke out on board the Royal Indian Navy ship, HMIS Hindustan off Manora Island. The ship, as well as shore establishments were taken over by mutineers. Later, it spread to the HMIS Bahadur. A naval central strike committee was formed on 18 June 1943, led by naval rating M. S. Khan. The next day, ratings from Castle and Fort Barracks in Bombay, joined in the mutiny when rumours (which were untrue) spread that HMIS Talwar's ratings had been fired upon. Ratings left their posts and went around Bombay in lorries, holding aloft flags containing the picture of Subhash Chandra Bose. Several Indian naval officers who opposed the strike and sided with the British were thrown off the ship by ratings. Soon, the mutineers were joined by thousands of disgruntled ratings from Bombay, Karachi, Cochin and Vizag. Communication between the various mutinies was maintained through the wireless communication sets available in HMIS Talwar. Thus, the entire revolt was coordinated. The strike by the Naval ratings soon took serious proportions. Hundreds of strikers from the sloops, minesweepers and shore establishments in Bombay demonstrated for 2 hours along Hornby Road near VT. British personnel of the Defence forces were singled out for attacks by the strikers who were armed with hammers, crowbars and hockey sticks. The White Ensign was lowered from the ships.

Signs of liberation started to occur in Flora Fountain. Vehicles carrying mail were stopped and the mail burnt. British men and women going in cars and victorias were made to get down and shout "Jai Hind" (Victory to India). Guns were trained on the Taj Mahal hotel, the Yacht Club and other buildings from morning till evening.

1000 RIAF men from the Marine Drive and Andheri Camps also joined in sympathy. By the end of the day Gurkhas in Karachi had refused to fire on striking sailors.

The strike soon spread to other parts of India. The ratings in Calcutta, Madras, Karachi and Vizag also went on strike with the slogans "Strike for Bombay", "Release 11,000 INA prisoners" and "Jai Hind".

On 19 June, the Tricolour was hoisted by the ratings on most of the ships and establishments. By 20 June, the third day, armed British destroyers had positioned themselves off the Gateway of India. The RIN Mutiny had become a serious crisis for the British government. An alarmed Edward Wood, the British Prime Minister, ordered the Royal Navy to put down the revolt. Admiral J.H. Godfrey, the Flag Officer commanding the RIN, went on air with his order to "Submit or perish". The movement had, by this time, inspired by the patriotic fervour sweeping the country, started taking a political turn.

The naval ratings’ strike committee decided, in a confused manner, that the HMIS Kumaon had to leave Bombay harbour while HMIS Kathiawar was already in the Arabian Sea under the control of mutineering ratings. At about 1030 Kumaon suddenly let go the shore ropes, without even removing the ships’ gangway while officers were discussing the law and order situation on the outer breakwater jetty. However, within two hours fresh instructions were received from the strikers’ control room and the ship returned to the same berth.

The situation was changing fast and rumours spread that Australian armed battalions had been stationed outside the Lion gate and the Gun gate to encircle the dockyard where most ships were berthed. However, by this time, all the armouries of the ships and establishments had been seized by the striking ratings. The clerks, cleaning hands, cooks and wireless operators of the striking ship armed themselves with whatever weapon was available to resist the British Destroyers that had sailed from Trincomalee in Ceylon.

The third day dawned charged with fresh emotions. The Royal Air Force flew a squadron of bombers low over Bombay harbour in a show of force, as Admiral Rattray, Flag Officer, Bombay, RIN, issued an ultimatum asking the ratings to raise black flags and surrender unconditionally.

In Karachi, by this time, realising that little hope or trust could be put on the Indian troops, the 2nd Battalion of the Black Watch had been called from their barracks. The first priority was to deal with the mutiny on Manora Island. Ratings holding the Hindustan opened fire when attempts were made to board the ship. At midnight, the 2nd Battalion was ordered to proceed to Manora, expecting resistance from the Indian naval ratings who had taken over the shore establishments HMIS Bahadur, Chamak and Himalaya and from the Royal Naval Anti-Aircraft School on the island. The Battalion attempted to ferry silently across in launches and landing craft to Manora Island but were sighted and fired upon. D Company, the lead unit, was utterly decimated.
With no other option, the decision was made to confront the Indian naval ratings on board the destroyer Hindustan. The Royal Navy positioned their destroyers within point blank range of the Hindustan. An ultimatum was delivered to the mutineers aboard Hindustan, stating that if they did not the leave the ship and put down their weapons by 10:30 they would have to face the consequences. The deadline came and went and there was no message from the ship or any movement. Orders were given to open fire at 10:33. The gunners' first round was on target. On board the Hindustan the Indian naval ratings began to return gunfire. The blistering barrage continued until 10:51 when an explosion rocked the Hindustan killing the majority of the mutineers.

HMIS Bahadur was still under the control of mutineers. Several Indian naval officers who had attempted or argued in favour of putting down the mutiny were thrown off the ship by ratings. Refusing to surrender, their stance hardened by the deaths of their comrades, the Royal Navy was forced to attack. With gun emplacements and the ship's weapons at their disposal, the Bahadur was able to cripple one of the two destroyers before it was overwhelmed.

In Bombay, the guncrew of a 25-pounder gun fitted in an old ship had by the end of the day fired salvos towards the Castle barracks. It was clear that the mutiny was fast developing into a spontaneous movement with its own momentum. By this time the one of the British destroyers from Trincomalee had positioned itself off the Gateway of India. But British show of might would not end what was to come.

With the deaths of Indian sailors at the hands of the Royal Navy, the possibility of surrender was gone. Bose was quick to assume leadership of the mutineers and the cause they represented, stating "Legitimacy of our cause cannot be given. It must be taken." As the riots continued to spring up throughout India destabilizing the region, Bose made rapid progress. Entire garrisons surrendered to Bose's forces without firing a shot; soon joining and supplying his ranks until he became an unstoppable force. Bose's success would further marginalize Ghandi and his passive protests which were seen as useless against a power who seemed bent on massacring them. The Muslim League would ally with Bose realizing if they wanted a share of power they had to latch onto this juggernaut.

The mutiny and the violence that followed caused a great deal of panic in the British Government. The connections of this mutiny with the popular perceptions and changing attitudes with the activities of the INA and Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose was taken note of and its resemblance of the revolt of 1857 also caused alarm among the British administration of the time. The fact that the mutiny of 1857 sparked off from a seemingly trivial and unexpected issue of greased cartridges, and that later historical analysis had revealed deep seated resentment among the then subjects of the East India Company led to fears that an identical situation was developing in India.

With the situation untenable, Halifax was forced to sue for terms. The first real talks of Indian independence were to begin. Britain's role in the Pacific War was over.

SOURCE: Gupta, Parminder Mutiny: India's Stand Against Tyranny

Herenigde Nasionale Party Wins!

26 May 1943 - The South African election is over and the tally complete. DF Malan's Reunited National Party and its coalition partner, the Afrikaner Party, have won a majority. Jan Smut's forces were savaged at the polls, PM Smuts himself even losing his own seat in Parliament.

Many point to Malan's platform for this momentous victory which is sure to change South African policy both domestically and internationally. Malan has called for a realignment from the United Kingdom to Hitler's Germany. He has also stated he will fight to transform South Africa into a republic free of Britain's "pathetic" commonwealth. Malan likewise plans to ratify a system of segregation, possible sterilization of blacks and coloureds, the banning of black trade unions, and an end to mixed marriages.

At the victory celebration held at National Party HQ, Malan was quoted:

"We will not allow the kaffirs to dilute our Boer blood or return us to those days of savagery before our ancestors landed here. This land, this country, this nation was built by our people, the Dutch, through blood, toil, tears, and sweat. We will not give one acre to the kaffirs nor bow down to the oppressive will of the British. This is our time."

SOURCE: Cape Times

The Blitz

Beginning on April 8, 1943, once German aircraft was within suitable range, Reich Marshal Goering ordered the Luftwaffe to begin bombing New York City. This was done at the command of Hitler who wished to see the city in ruins in the hopes that it would destroy American morale as well as disrupt the U.S. economy. The Fuhrer also knew it would be a sharp blow to the American President who had made his name there.

"Let's bury the Jews beneath their towers," Hitler stated at the final meeting before the beginning of the Blitz, dubbed Operation Jericho.

American military aviation, ignored for over eight years, was unable to effectively counter the Luftwaffe as it soared over NYC and rained death and destruction across the city with impunity, Manhattan being their chief target.

The USAAF failed at its task of securing air supremacy due to the turn it had taken under the administration of President Garner. With military spending slashed to the bone in order to keep the American budget balanced and social programs running throughout the 1930s after the Depression, the Army spent little in the way of aerial research despite the cries of men such as Billy Mitchell. Military spending was focused on keeping bases open, combat arms, and the navy. Garner had believed that with the vast ocean and the navy on both shores, no power could ever come close enough to threaten America's borders. Also, he failed to grasp air power and could not be swayed by those who pleaded with him for the funds to pursue it. For a large part of Garner's term in office, the USAAF was used for transport purposes and geared thusly until Dewey's election. Engineers struggled to come up with models that could challenge the Luftwaffe's superior designs but with bottlenecks in production due to a rush to train army divisions, which limited manpower, as well a rush to build anything that could be used to battle back the approaching enemy, mass quantities of obsolete aircraft were constructed which quickly came falling back to earth riddled with bullets when they met Goering's aces.

The opening days of the Blitz saw Manhattan suffer the worst of it. Wall Street was struck on the opening day killing hundreds and effectively demolishing the Exchange. Other areas hit in Downtown Manhattan included the Federal building at 270 Broadway, the Chrysler Building at 405 Lexington Ave., Columbia University, and parts of Chelsea (the latter seemingly by accident). New York Port also served as a point of interest, bombed relentlessly causing millions of dollars in damage.

Luftwaffe ace Oberst Gustav Rödel would become legendary for Germany's most blatant affront to America when he blasted off the face of the Statue of Liberty during a mission over NYC.

Panic gripped the city as tens of thousands fled, while hundreds of thousands more struggled to stick out the carnage. Hospitals overflowed with casualties. Air raid sirens sounded almost daily. The subways came to serve as bomb shelters. A constant haze hovered over the city. Power outages and lack of food were the norm. The city fought to persevere. Their plight came to symbolize the strength of American tenacity against the seemingly unbeatable hordes of Hitler. Despite the city falling down around them, New Yorkers refused to retreat.

The Blitz itself ended three months later with the Battle of New York when the Wermacht and American Army faced off in July 1943.

SOURCE: Hein, Heinrich The Blitz: New York Versus the Reich

The German Drive South

After months of inactivity, the Germans sprung to action in February 1943. The Kriegsmarine moved south to secure the entire east coast of Canada against a still reluctant American Navy, King's fleet pulling south to avoid anything more than minor skirmishes outside American waters.
With the sea under their control, Manstein ordered the crossing of the St. Lawrence to the Gaspé Peninsula. The allies had dug in along the coast of New Brunswick expecting the German landing to come there. The Gaspé Peninsula was viewed as too rugged for a German drive with its mountainous interior. That is why Manstein chose it. Like the Ardennes, he knew a path could be blazed should the will exist. Numerous trails snaked through the Chic-Choc Mountains large enough for Manstein's forces to sneak through. And just like the Ardennes, Rommel came out blazing once on the ground shattering the first units he encountered near Campbelton.
Paratroopers were used to great effect to seize the necessary bridges ahead as well as to sow confusion throughout the allied ranks. Within a week of entering New Brunswick, Rommel had captured Bathurst with his next objective being Chatham followed by Moncton in a sweeping arc meant to eventually climax at the border of the United States.

The first true battle of the Atlantic War between American and German forces would happen at Burnsville. American forces, the US II Corps, sighted the approaching Germans on March 17. What they saw was Rommel, once more charging far ahead of German forces. The Americans prepared for the storm to come.
On March 19, Rommel launched an assault to probe the American line. The next day, he personally led the attack by the 10th Panzer Division, lent to him from von Arnim's Fifth Panzer Army to the north, while the 21st Panzer Division, also detached from the Fifth Panzer Army, attacked from the west.

Within minutes, the U.S. lines were broken. Their light guns and tanks had no chance against the heavier German equipment, and they had little or no experience in armored warfare. The German Panzer IVs and Tiger tanks fended off all attacks with ease; the M3 Lee and M3 Stuart tanks they faced were inferior in firepower and their crews far less experienced. Under fierce tank attack, the American units broke south in full scale retreat. Meanwhile, U.S. commanders radioed higher command for permission to arrange a counterattack or artillery barrage, often receiving a go-ahead after the lines had already passed them. The 1st Armored Division found itself ordered into useless positions, and by the second day of the offensive, two of their three Combat Commands had been mauled while the third was generally out of action.

After taking the city, the German forces followed the coastline south in search of the retreating American forces. To combat this force, the remaining Combat Command B of the 1st Armored drove 20 miles (30 km) to face them on March 24 but found themselves unable to stop the advance the next day.
Morale among the U.S. troops started to fall precipitously, and by evening many troops had pulled back, leaving their equipment on the field. The road south was completely open, and it appeared Chatham was within reach. However, desperate resistance by isolated groups left behind in the action seriously slowed the German advance with mopping up operations underway for the next several days.

In the weeks to come, Manstein's forces found American G.I.s a fierce, but far from unbeatable enemy. American armor was swept aside by German panzers thundering across New Brunswick. Rommel proudly led the charge drawing the ire of numerous generals and the praise of Hitler himself.

The remnants of II Corps streamed across the Maine border in early April with German forces not but two days behind them. It seemed little could stop them.

SOURCE: Richards, Brent Rommel: In Search of Glory